Philosophy The New Testament Essay

It is a well known fact that the Bible is at the head of the list of the most widely read books in the whole world. Moreover, it seems that with time the Bible only expands its range of influence as this text is being constantly examined by representatives of various religious groups, by historians, by philosophers, and by many other people. In this regard, what makes the Bible such a prolific and unique religious and historical text is its wide scope of significance and various patters of meaning in it which, depending on the employed analytical tools, can contain different messages within the same parts of the text. Let us on the example of the excerpt from the twelfth chapter of the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament try to find out how meaning and significance are encoded in the Biblical texts, and what approaches readers can use to extract messages contained in these writings. The larger context of the chapter with the passage devoted to the question about the resurrection The excerpt that we are about to explain in a systematic way is tentatively called â€Å"The Question about the Resurrection† in the book of Kurt Aland â€Å"Synopsis of the Four Gospels†. Indeed, this part of the twelfth chapter of the Gospel of Mark is dealing with the question that at first might seem to undermine the very idea of resurrection, and is giving the answer of Jesus Christ to that apparent dilemma. However, before going into the details of the polemics between Christ and Sadducees, it would be helpful to consider the general content of the chapter, so that we could better appreciate the context in which the question about the resurrection is discussed. The excerpt about the resurrection issue is preceded by the mentioning that Jesus had started speaking in parables. In accordance with this, in the first part of the twelfth chapter the parable of the tenants is given, then a famous answer of Christ about paying of taxes to Caesar follows, then goes the question about the resurrection, and before its end the chapter also includes several other important teachings of Christ. What unites all of these sub-parts of the twelfth chapter of the Gospel of Mark is that most of them, including the question about the resurrection, give account of the immediate instances of communication of Christ with people who are integral participants of dialogs, so that their questions and answers shape the way Christ responds and teaches. Meaning conveyed by the form of the passage devoted to the question about the resurrection With this larger context of the twelfth chapter of the Gospel of Mark in mind, we can start the analysis of the excerpt devoted to the issue of the resurrection. The excerpt begins with the description of the provoking behavior of Sadducees, who, similarly to those who just before them had tried to provoke Jesus by asking about payment of taxes to Caesar, compose a sophisticated case against the plausibility of the resurrection. That Sadducees are characterized as those â€Å"who say that there is no resurrection† (Mark 12. 8) instantly suggests that their intent in not an honest inquiry, but a hidden desire to disprove the teaching of Jesus. Besides, the strict succession and logical structure of the formulation of their question makes us think that it had been prepared well in advance, maybe even specifically for this encounter with Christ. For example, the question as voiced by Sadducees begins with the phrase: â€Å". . . Teacher, Moses wrote for us that if . . . † (Mark 12. 18). In this way, while formally appealing to the wisdom of Christ as the teacher, Sadducees actually advance their own vision of things, and so, along with Pharisees and Herodians, are on one hand presented as tempters of Christ, and on the other hand may be viewed as representatives of the limited earthly wisdom. This impression is also bolstered by the artificiality of the case of a woman who had married seven brothers, which seems to be a very unlikely occasion, or at least the one extremely rare. Ironically, for the purpose of the argumentation Sadducees might well deal only with the example of two brothers and one wife, so the fact that they went as far as mentioning the seventh brother may be interpreted as bespeaking their blind striving for their self-assertion as intellectually superior to others, including Jesus Christ. In reality, it is exactly this type of arrogance that is often reproached by the Bible, and this part of the passage about the resurrection offers perhaps one of the best instances of such hidden criticism. However, for those who might omit this implicit negative stance towards the arrogance of Sadducees, an open criticism of their quasi-intellectualism voiced by Christ quickly follows. In his answer to Sadducees Christ does not allow them to draw him into the format of the discussion that Sadducees had striven to create to achieve their own aim of confusing Jesus, but rather outright rejects the very premises of their line of argumentation as the ones completely ignorant of the subject of the discussion. In this way, Christ is actually shown by the text to masterfully possess skills of argumentative dialogue as he is able to change the form of the dialogue, which is persuasively shown by the observation later in the text of the twelfth chapter of the Gospel of Mark that says: â€Å". . . And after that no one [including Sadducees] dared to ask him any question. . . † (Mark 12. 34). So, to summarize on this point, the changes in the form of the passage about the resurrection from what starts as an instance of communication presumably controlled by Sadducees into the one ultimately controlled by Christ carries in it the wider meaning directed at the instigation of readers to think by analogy, and to compare the form of the dialog between Sadducees and Christ with other passages in the Bible, and with instances from our everyday life. Significance of the content of the passage devoted to the question about the resurrection Aside from its instructive form, the passage about the resurrection is very important in terms of the significance of its content. In fact, this excerpt is devoted to one of the key notions of the very Christian religion in which the miracle of resurrection serves as the manifestation of the power of God to defeat even death. Therefore, any passage in the Bible that clarifies this conception is significant, not to mention excerpts akin to the one we are examining that directly deal with the matter of the resurrection. In this respect, the peculiarity of the contribution that the twelfth chapter of the Gospel of Mark makes to this issue is not so much that it tells us what is the resurrection, but that it rather provides Chirst`s explanation of what the resurrection is not. In the context of the question of Sadducees, Christ explains that it is wrong to apply to those who are dead the familiar earthly notion of marriage, because â€Å". . . when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage. . . † (Mark 12. 25). In the line 27 Christ also points out that God is â€Å". . . not God the dead, but of the living. . . † (Mark 12. 27). It is this powerful denial of superficial views on the resurrection held by Sadducees that is the essence of Christ`s indignant response to the question about the resurrection and of his attempt to show that it is fundamentally ill-formulated. Moreover, in the studied passage we also can find some hints as to what the resurrection is like. Jesus briefly comments that after the dead are risen they â€Å"are like angels in heaven† (Mark 12. 25). Still, it seems that this characterization is simultaneously equally used to further bolster the description of what the resurrection is not, as the comparison of people who have been risen with angels carries the theme of the discussion away from the material world on which Sadducees seem to be overly focused. Thus, readers who seek explanations for some crucial religious ideas may view the studied passage that examines the question about the resurrection as primarily one of those parts of the Bible that provide the firsthand account of the theological aspects of teachings of Jesus Christ. Conclusion As we can see, the Bible, being the text that pretends to give an account of historical events and at the same time to send universal and timeless messages, indeed works on many levels that coexist within the same biblical texts, and mutually reinforce one another by enhancing their significance and by highlighting various patters of meaning that they contain. More specifically, in the passage devoted to the question of the resurrection the form of the text as if works to copy the conversational and emotional aspects of what might have been an actual argumentative tug of war between Sadducees and Christ in which Jesus had the final word. So, in this regard the Bible has the function of a historical document. At the same time, the content of this passage, which sheds light on the phenomenon of the resurrection, has the life of its own because this excerpt also has the function of a religious text that elucidates important elements of the Christian doctrine.

Consumption of Luxury Food: Essay

1. Introduction This chapter will serve as an introduction to the concept of Luxury food consumerism in Harrods Patisserie and Bakery Food Hall. It will evaluate customer loyalty incentives, pricing and hype around its luxury food. 1. 1 Overview of Harrods and Luxury food consumerism Harrods covers 1. 2 million square feet of terrain, in the very heart of one of London, England’s most prestigious areas, Knightsbridge. The historical architectural landmark, along with the Egyptian Escalator, which was envisioned by Mr. Al-Fayed himself, is listed by English Heritage. With no less than seven floors devoted to the finest-quality international brands, as well as a sumptuous Food Hall that is like no other. It is no wonder that Harrods attracts almost 15 million people through its doors every year. (http://factoidz. com/harrods-the-famous-british-landmark-department-store-changes-ownership-in-2010-and-remains-out-of-british-hands/) The United Kingdom and many parts of the E. U have been experiencing slow growth and development. However, according to information from this website which states†¦Harrods says its Knightsbridge site is Britain’s largest shop, selling an array of fashion, food and luxury goods†¦ Qatar Holdings bought Harrods from Mohamed Al-Fayed for a reported ? 1. 5 billion last May. (www. fasttrack. co. uk) This could only have been possible if profits had a successful recorded track rate. In 2010, sales in Harrods received ? 519. 8million, leaving Harrods with a profit of ? 86. 5million (www. fasttrack. co. uk) As consumer wealth increases, so does the demand for more premium, value added products as opposed to cost-reduced commodity products. The situation is partly created by an increasingly affluent society and a widening gap with the divide of rich and middle class in the current recession. There are various factors influencing change. In the UK 10% of the population is currently defined as affluent – this figure is expected to rise to 30%. www. foodbytesni. com/text. doc The EU speciality food market (as opposed to the premium food market) is worth â‚ ¬33. 5 billion – (4. 6% of total EU food & drink spend). In Britain and Ireland it is valued at â‚ ¬6. 1 billion (4. 5% of total food & drink spend). It is forecasted to grow to â‚ ¬7. 5 billion in 3 years. It is commonly known that yesterday’s luxury becomes today’s necessity. Luxury tends to be rare and expensive. With the above profit figures, the researcher can only assume that Harrods appears to be the winner in the Patisserie and Bakery Market. With the definition of poverty completely different in the western world to the ratio of poverty in developing countries, luxury consumption of Patisserie and bakery is considered trendy and it’s demand in Harrods is ever growing. Although we may assume that luxury foods are related to income, during this current recession in the UK with dwindling income, the demand for Harrods Luxury Patisserie and Bakery foods has increased over this period of time. I have noticed this as the researcher is employed in Harrods food production unit. Although, the usual scenario for other departmental stores may be to reduce prices during recession, Harrods luxury Patisserie and Bakery foods have retained its prices and popularity. In fact with the VAT increase from 17. 5% to 20% the sales in this section of the food halls has shown no major downturn. Hence, it is my opinion that demand is so great for Harrods Luxury Patisserie and Bakery that consumers of any income group visit Harrods to buy even the lowest cost luxury Patisserie and Bakery foods which has been a contributing factor. Harrods is globally known as unique, as it has an association with class, quality and distinguishes itself from the rest of it’s competitors. This study is limited to only respondents above the age of 18 years and will only be carried out on 30-50 respondents. The study is narrowed to consumers of Harrods Patisserie and Bakery products and not consumers of the rest of the food halls. The study will not cover the life style and overall economic standard of the respondents. This has been consciously left out to avoid lengthening of the study. Hence, the study will be unable to analyse the financial background of the respondents in depth. Lastly, although luxury food consumption is a macroeconomic function, this study will only focus on a singular market. 1. 2 Research Questions 1. Is the recession affecting Consumption of Luxury Food in Harrods Food’s Patisserie and Bakery Food Hall? 2. What are the key aspects or areas of consumer spending behaviour patterns in Patisserie and Bakery Food Halls, Harrods? 1. 3 Objectives of the Research The objectives of the study are as follows: A) To investigate customer consumption and spending behaviour with luxury Patisserie and Bakery foods in Harrods. B) To make recommendations to Harrods on how to enhance their sales and maintain their market share in luxury Patisserie and Bakery foods. 1. 4 How will the objectives be achieved? Objective (A) will be achieved through examination of secondary data. Objective (B) will be achieved through findings of primary data through the use of questionnaire survey and secondary data through Harrods food industry annual reports. CHAPTER TWO Literature Review 2. Introduction. This chapter will show the existing literature in the field of Consumer Behaviour from a global perspective and narrow it down to consumer behaviour in Harrods, UK. It will include marketing concepts, psychological concepts and factual statistics. The luxury market is vastly increasing, and there have been significant changes towards consumer behaviour (Strauss & Howe, 1999). Foods that are expensive have a certain appeal and are regarded as luxuries for special occasions rather than daily meals. Conversely, foods that are widespread and cheap have less appeal. Europe is considered to be the cultural center of fashion, interior design, and cuisine. Gourmet cooking has become a fine art, and visitors to the area can find almost any type of food, and the trend more recently has become luxury foods, luxury desserts etc. http://www. foodtourism. com/ From the literature I have read it can be summarized that the current generation enjoys spending money on luxury brands due to disposable income and lifestyle that this generation avails of due to their income or that of their parent’s earning. 2. 1 A theory of luxury. When Marie Antoinette supposedly said ‘let them eat cake’, she was seen as a luxury junkie whose out-of-control spending grated on the poor and unfortunate French people. But today, cake has become one of the favourite luxury foods. A revolution has taken place where individuals in the world have got richer. Luxury is no longer the embrace of the kings and queens of France but the mass marketing phenomenon of everyday life. Simply put, luxury has become luxuri? cation of the common place (Twitchell, 2001; Berry, 1994). 2. 2 Definitions of luxury products, speciality and premium foods. In order to understand a luxury product, it is essential to differentiate it from ordinary products on the basis of its essential characteristics. Luxury products, speciality and premium foods are defined by their price, quality, aesthetics, exclusiveness, and symbolic significance. To define them, their definitions are summarised below. 2. 2. 1 Luxury products Luxury is defined as quality possessed by something that is excessively expensive http://ardictionary. com/Luxury/5550 As they are highly associated with their core products, common definitions of luxury brands refer to specific associations with their products. The essential characteristics of luxury brands therefore correspond largely with those of luxury products. Consequently, their definition can be derived from that of luxury products as follows: Luxury brands are regarded as images in the minds of consumers that comprise associations about a high level of price, quality, aesthetics, rarity, extraordinarily and a high degree of further non-functional associations (c. f. Heine 2010). As luxury products and brands include a high rating for their characteristics; this marks a differentiation for luxury manufacturers. Even amongst luxury products there are differences such as accessible luxury products, which are affordable for most consumers from time-to-time and some are exclusive luxury products, which are affordable only for the wealthy. 2. 2. 2 Specialty or gourmet foods. Specialty or gourmet foods are unique foods/delicacies, which sometimes exploit regional identity. They are less authentic than artisan products. (Workman C, 2005) 2. 2. 3 Premium foods. Premium products use quality ingredients and careful methods but can be made on an industrial scale. (Workman C, 2005) 2. 2. 4 End Product. Products made by artisan have optimum taste, texture, and flavours or aromas, (and nutrition/health benefits). They resonate with place, tradition and culture (authenticity), and reflect the producer, his/her skill, personality and ethos, and the method of production. They often have an established and stable reputation. Often they are made for fresh consumption locally, or are available in limited quantities, providing a unique, exclusive experience (often including the purchase e. g. at a market/direct with the producer). They therefore also have a high prestige factor and high profile with respect to the quantity produced and distributed. Producers of artisan products are usually hands-on from production through to sales. They are very experienced, skilled and show an uncompromised commitment to their craft, trade and to the superior taste of their products. Often there are small numbers of people making any one kind of artisan product. (Workman C, 2005) 2. 3 Food Tourism During the 20th Century, industrialisation began to threaten artisan producers and many abandoned their traditional techniques. But in the past two decades, there’s been a resurgence in demand for quality products made by time-honoured methods†¦Food tourism has become big business, worth nearly ? 4bn a year. (Lane M,2005) Food has many roles to play for consumers: it is functional (sustaining life); it plays a key role in our celebrations; it is a conduit for socializing; it is entertaining; it is sensuous and sensual; and it is a way of experiencing new cultures and countries. For many, food becomes highly experiential (i. e. much more than functional) when it is part of a travel experience, it can become sensuous and sensual, symbolic and ritualistic, and can take on new significance and meaning. Even the most basic meal can be etched in memory forever when it is eaten when surrounded by awe-inspiring scenery or at the end of a special day exploring a new city. (Hall M and McIntosh 2000) Swarbrooke and Horner have stated that food tourism stakeholders such as restaurant and cafe owners, cookery school providers, festival organizers, hotel and resort managers, bed and breakfast operators, and food producers. By understanding how tourists make their decisions to purchase and/or consume food products we will be able to gain a better understanding of when we need to intervene in their decision-making process. Appropriate intervention can, in turn, be used to persuade them to purchase ‘our’ food products and services. Consumer behaviour research is the study of why people, either individually or in groups, buy the product they do and how they make their decision (Swarbrooke and Horner, 1999). Food tourism is something that is becoming more commonly understood. But how would someone decide where to go, and what to see? http://www. foodtourism. com/ Tourists who enjoy luxury food and patisserie generally make every attempt to at least visit Harrods while in the UK. Often, like the researcher at the visit first to Harrods tourists only visit and see, but, at their second visit at least a small amount of luxury food or patisserie is purchased. Although, consumer spending has slowed down in the UK, Harrods has shown an increase in profits in their Patisserie and Bakery section with its luxury food items. 2. 4 Consumer buying behaviour Kolb M. (2006) associates Maslow’s theory and consumer purchasing as she states Maslow’s theory has a direct application for marketing because many of these needs are met through the purchase of products. Infact, once a consumer has all the food, clothing and shelter they need, all other purchases are made to meet higher needs. Thus, the researcher can state that in order to meet some part of one’s self esteem needs, UK and international consumers may be relating to Harrods luxury Patisserie and Bakery food to experience self actualization and thus for Harrods this has created a niche. The interest in premium, specialty and artisan products is also influenced by the static growth in population, which has lead to a static growth in overall grocery sales. In this situation, foods that command a premium price and higher margins become the only growth sector, and therefore become the target of multiples. Artisan, specialty and premium foods are therefore gaining broader distribution in the multiple retail sector. Workman C (2005) 2. 5 Consumer buying Trends The growth of specialty fine food is attributable to Increasing consumer affluence as consumer wealth increase, so does the demand for more premium, value added products as opposed to cost-reduced commodity products†¦10% of population in UK is defined as affluent – this figure is expected to rise to 30%. When it does premium food, including specialty food is expected to account for 45% of total food sales in UK. The specialty market is worth ? 4. 2 b in UK and has grown from 20% from 3. 5 bn in 2003. British fine food consumers spend ? 900 per year on fine food. Workman C ( 2005) CHAPTER THREE Research Methodology 3. 1 Introduction This chapter discusses the different aspects involved in the methodology used to conduct the present study of Consumption of Luxury Food in Harrods Food’s Patisserie and Bakery Food Hall. It highlights methodological approaches which will allow scope of the Research study in a sustained process of planning and design. The consideration of the process will influence the choice of methods and approaches that will be presented. This chapter, for that reason contains a discussion of the research purpose, research approach, research strategy, data collection methods, data analysis and quality standards. 3. 2 Research Purpose Yin (1994) states that research purpose can be grouped and classified as exploratory, descriptive or explanatory. Exploratory research is conducted to clarify the nature of a problem, where the purpose is to provide insights and understanding, not to provide conclusive evidence. Exploratory research is conducted with the expectation that subsequent research will proceed (Zikmund, 2000:Bryman,1989). An exploratory study method is used when the aim is to develop proposition of future research (Yin,1994). A descriptive research is used when the major objective is to describe something, such as population or a phenomenon. It seeks to answer who, what, where and how questions. In a nutshell, it does not give the explanation of the cause of the findings. However, when solving a business problem, it is often enough with the information obtained from describing a situation and it is not required to know why things are the way they are (Zikmund,2000). In order to perform a descriptive research, the researcher must have prior knowledge of the problem situation and the information needed is clearly defined. In fact, this is the major difference between exploratory and descriptive research, as well as that the descriptive research must be structured and the methods for the selecting sources of the information and collecting data are pre-planned and formal (Malhotra,1996). In explanatory research, the emphasis is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationship between variables (Saunders et al. ,2000). According to McNabb (2008) typical objectives for explanatory research include explaining why some phenomenon occurred, interpreting a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables, and explaining differences in two or more groups’ responses. The purpose of this Research Study is to gain an understanding of Harrods success within it’s luxury food service specifically their Patisserie and Bakery department Food Hall, Knightsbridge, London, UK. In order to achieve this objective, the Research Study will need to consider three core elements which will be how Harrods’ conducts their design, implementation and evaluation strategy of the customer. Since the aim of the research is to describe how Harrods operates within the Luxury food service industry, the study is descriptive in nature. 3. 3 Research Approach According to Zikmund (2000) research can be conducted in different ways and includes both a theoretical and a methodological approach. The theoretical approach can either be deductive or inductive, and the methodological approach is qualitative or quantitative (Zikmund 2000) 3. 3. 1 Qualitative versus Quantitative Research Zikmund (2000) further states that when collecting information, either qualitative or quantitative data can be collected. Qualitative approach may consider the following methods for gathering information like: Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field Notes, Reflective Journals, Structured Interview, Semi-structured Interview, Unstructured Interview, and Analysis of documents and materials. In contrast, quantitative methods for research techniques include gathering of quantitative data, like information dealing with numbers which is measurable. Statistics, tables and graphs, are generally used to present the results of these methods. They are distinguished from qualitative methods. The study, under focus is quantitative using an exploratory design. This kind of method is widely used to gain familiarity with a phenomenon that is not adequately explored. The researcher feels the need to explore this issue since there is not much data relating to Consumption of Luxury Food in Harrods Food’s Patisserie and Bakery Food Hall. 3. 4 Sampling Techniques The universe will comprise of ‘simple random sampling’ method to select samples. This will enable the researcher achieve the desired information. According to Kumar (2008), this type of sampling is also as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal change of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. To select the sample, ‘each item’ in this research study will be assigned a number from 1 to 100. The sample survey will cover respondents in the age group of 18 years and above only. This will ensure that the respondents are old enough to understand and answer questions in the interview schedule. 3. 5 Population The sample size of this study is intended to be 30-50 respondents, in the age group of 18 years and above. The study will have to be completed in Harrods Patisserie and Bakery Food Hall, Knightsbridge, London. The population will only include consumers and purchasers from the above food hall. 3. 6 Research Instruments For the purpose of this research study both primary and secondary data relevant to this topic will be used. Without the use of both instruments the research study will not verify facts and the scope of analysis if not used together will not make the research interesting. 3. 6. 1 Primary Data Primary data for this research study will result from firsthand experience with the use of questionnaires for preliminary gathering of data. Questionnaires will be prepared prior to in-depth interviews with respondents at Harrods. 3. 6. 2 Secondary Data Sources. For the scope of this research study Secondary Data Sources will include literature review with sources from the library, web, and surveys. Other secondary sources of data will be sourced and will include thesis, newspapers and internal company reports. 3. 6. 3 Data Collection Instruments This section will include the 30-50 respondents completing a questionnaire. The interview schedule will be prepared on the basis of study objectives and aims with structured open ended and close ended questions. Section A may cover income, Section B may cover types of Luxury food and section C on consumption of luxury food. 3. 6. 4 Interviews At the time of the respondents’ completing the questionnaire the researcher will interview the respondents. This approach will enable the researcher gain a better comprehension of consumer spending on Luxury Food items in Harrods. CHAPTER FOUR 4. 0 PROPOSED ANALYSIS This chapter will highlight the Research plan as it will outline the steps for conducting the research in terms of description, timing and presentation. It will be used as a guide to execute and monitor the project which will enable the researcher to achieve the purposes of the research. The data collected will be analysed and presented diagrammatically in tables and charts. This will then enable empirical findings to be compared. In order to carry out statistical analysis of the quantitative data obtained, the Statistical Package for Social Studies (SPSS) and Microsoft Word software will be used to develop a comprehensive and flexible statistical analysis and data management for the research. This will enable a range of tabulated reports, graphs, pie charts, and analysis. 4. 1 Schedule. |Planned activities | | | |March |April |May |June |July | |Topic Selection |X |X | | | | |Literature Review | |X |X | | | |Meeting with Group | |X | | | | |Meeting with Supervisor | |X |X |X |X | |Seek Permission from Harrods | | |X | | | |Write up Questionnaire for data collection | | |X | | | |Data Collection at Harrods | | |X | | | |Analysis of data & Findings | | |X |X |X | |Write up of Dissertation Introduction | | | |X | | |Write up of Dissertation Overview | | | |X | | |Drawing up summary and conclusion | | | | |X | |Proof Reading | | | | |X | |Presentation of Research | | | | |X | |Final Submission | | | | |X |. CHAPTER FIVE ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES The results of this research will provide a specific insight for Harrods Patisserie and Bakery Food Hall into consumer behaviour, trends and patterns. 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In your opinion and using a case study, what is the most dangerous Essay

In your opinion and using a case study, what is the most dangerous type of terrorism in the globalized, twenty-first century Fr - Essay Example According to certain observations made by recent researchers, it has been determined that ‘Terrorism’ has detained the world’s attention in recent years since mainly 2001. In this context, it has been the result of the destructive 9/11 attacks upon the two core symbols of the power political country i.e. United States of America. The targeted buildings of America were the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon. The attack has attained a great emblematic stature as an outrage to the reputable global order and an encounter to the world’s leading power. There are various types of terrorism within the society. A few of them are ‘Sate terrorism’, ‘Cyber terrorism ‘and ‘Narco-terrorism’ among others. In recent years, religious terrorism has emerged in terms of its occurrence, measure of violence and international reach. Furthermore, it has also been observed that there has been a relative decline within secular terrorism. The ol d philosophies of class battle, anti-colonial deliverance and material chauvinism have been transformed by new and energetic infusion of religious ideologies. In this context, it can be further ascertained that religious violence has been supported by Grassroots extremist, which has been widely spread amidst the population living in the repressive societies (Martin, 2012). This study mainly focuses on the relevance of religious terrorism worldwide. Such type of terrorism usually affects the heart of common masses and attains a great reach within a shorter tenure. Furthermore, the paper intends to discuss the dangerous aspects of religious terrorism along with ascertaining the policies that are being implemented to stop it. With regard to limitations and problems that had been faced, in order to segregate the requisite materials certain difficulties arose. Based on religious beliefs and norms of the people, it was difficult to collect secondary sources pertaining to the concerned stu dy aspects. Religion is a term, which depicts emotional attachment of common masses. Consequently, a research study on such aspects involves in-depth analysis of cultural values and religious differences. The study also involves the blood shed of common masses pertaining to such dangerous act of terrorism. Part One Religious terrorism is represented as a political violence. It is propagated by a strong belief that has been imposed by the higher powerful authorities as a command for continuing with the terrorist violence. This worldly power is imposed to gain a greater glory in relation to faith. Violent acts are the results that have been committed mainly by the beliefs of the worldly power, which preaches about receiving of rewards afterlife. Considering the historical perspective related to the ‘Religious Violence’, terrorism is the end result of the strict norms and beliefs, which has been in long-term associated with human affairs. Histories related to various masse s, civilizations, nations and realms are filled with numerous examples of revolutionary believers. In this context, the revolutionary believers engaged themselves in violent activities for promoting their strong belief. Furthermore, in-depth analysis of ‘Religious Terrorism’ has proclaimed that a few of the religious terrorists are greatly inspired by the defensive motives,

Stigma and discrimination of living with HIV in middle-aged people Literature review

Stigma and discrimination of living with HIV in middle-aged people - Literature review Example Despite this fact, the advent and common use of the active antiretroviral drugs that have been used to alleviate the HIV conditions in humans has extended the lives of many people, who, today, find themselves attracted into the old age bracket amidst harbouring HIV status. Other than the number of older people becoming newly infected with the disease, the number of old people who were infected before continue to increase further swelling the number. In this study, old age bracket is considered to be at 50 years and beyond. Past research indicate that the total number of individuals who are living with HIV and aids in the United States was estimated to have increased from 59,649 to 112,447 between the years 200 and 2004. The cities considered to be the epicenters of the occurrence of the disease in the region such as New York have continued to register the highest number of people living with HIV over time. For instance, in New York, over 30% of the total number of people living with HIV is considered to be old, over 50 years and beyond (Barnett & Whiteside, 2006). 25% of those living with the disease in Los Angeles on the other hand fall above 50 years. Owing to these facts, the rate of discrimination and stigma among these people is expected to incre ase and even double over time. Such stigmatization characteristics are mainly common among peers, at workplaces and in homes and are likely to be determined by factors such as age differences, gender categories, race and ethnicity as well as other related social factors such as drugs and substance abuse, and mental health conditions. The number of old people suffering from HIV/AIDS infection has continued to increase in various places around the globe. Various studies have bee n carried out by an increasing number of people to address different aspects of the effects of HIV/AIDS infection in the society

Violence in Nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Violence in Nursing - Research Paper Example While this patient received a five-year sentence after successful prosecution in a court of law, many more such cases go unpunished, and there is continual mental and physical abuse of nurses by their patients each passing day in various medical facilities. In effect, nurses have put up with abusive behavior, and they continue to tolerate this issue on a daily basis. However, it is essential to avoid the current state of affairs to ensure that nurses played their roles and responsibilities in an enabling environment, which ensures their safety as they provide quality care. Conversely, the failure to ensure a safe environment for nurses will have adverse effects on the quality of care provided. Therefore, it is the responsibility of every stakeholder to ensure nurses' safety in the workplace. It is important to point out that there are ongoing actions to put in place measures meant to protect and punish violence in nursing. However, these measures prove not to be effective. Case in po int, a Maryland bill titled, HB 1099 - Second Degree Assault - Health Care Practitioner, sought to protect health care providers in their workplace during their line of duty. The bill, which healthcare providers were instrumental in its push, would apply to second-degree assault on a practitioner while asking for the raise in the penalty from a misdemeanor to an act of felony. Unfortunately, the judiciary committee in the house rejected the hearing of the bill. In effect, this calls for action to ensure a total protection of the nurses. Introduction The world considers health as the most important aspect that guides the development agenda in a nation. In effect, healthcare becomes the most important sector with governments of the world placing the highest priority in terms of resources and policies on healthcare. Based on the foregoing, the role of the nurse is a crucial one in the society and all over the world. In this regard, nurses play the crucial roles of educating their patie nts publicly and privately; advocacy roles essential for promoting health; rehabilitating patients, and most importantly playing the primary role of giving their patients’ the required care and support during treatment. However, it is crucial to ensure that the environment whereby the nurses operated was safe in order for them to provide quality care. Conversely, an environment that is not safe will have adverse effects on the quality of care nurses provided with the society suffering. Safety in healthcare, as in any other profession, is the most fundamental aspect in order to realize and meet the expected standards of care. In this regard, it is crucial to point out that the failure to have stiff penalties against violence impacts the role of nurses and effectively affects the quality of care. Nevertheless, aggressive and violent behavior from patients, their families, and their friends has become the norm rather than the exception on American hospitals and in the world. In effect, this underlines the importance of legislation and policies meant to penalize these incidents of violence against our nurses in hospital since they leave nurses in a state of negative psychological and emotional responses, which affect their productivity. In effect, this review of the literature seeks to investigate the effects of violence in nursing on the society.

Democratization in Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union Essay

Democratization in Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union - Essay Example Russia initiated all the four processes at once. In this case, it involves the redefinition of national identity, democratization, integration into the world economy, and market reform. This is contrary to other democratizing countries that may have undergone one or two of these transition processes, but not all at once. This essay is a critical analysis of an article Executive Deception by Steven Fish. The article has information on the type of systems appropriate for nations undergoing transition from authoritarian rule to democratic governance. It will begin with a discussion on the fall of the Soviet Union that initiated development of a new system. It also covers a brief description of the new system, its leadership ways and factors within the system that affect and promote democracy. It will then make a conclusion on the current state of Russia with Putin and Medvedev as its leaders. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, a new means of constituting supreme power emerged, new sources of legitimacy to the supreme power emerged and the idea of the presidency was introduced to the Russians. This was a revolutionary idea in a nation where hereditary monarchy and ideology as a source of legitimacy, dominated for years. However, the direction of the movement was a characteristic of Russia’s system of governance where all the power is embodied in one person and personified completely. According to Fish (2001), a system where power is embodied in one person and completely personified is referred to as ‘superpresidentialism’. The move towards democratic governance and the existence of the old system led to the formation of a conflict between democratic and autocratic tendencies that are still existent in Russia to date (Brown, 2001, p, 15). The collapse of the Soviet institutions contributed to the formation of a personalized style of politics (Fish, 2001: 179–81). As a result, Boris Yeltsin became the

Feminist and Virtue theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Feminist and Virtue theory - Essay Example In 2007, Preston delineated the advantages or usefulness of virtue theory. Virtue theory has put emphasis on character-building which can be useful in everyday morality. It is also applied to the ethic of role and professional ethics, checks other cognitive style approaches to allow a place for feelings, roles, and relationships of ethic of care, serves as a tool in core community values identification, and provides basis for cultivating virtues and moral education among the youth. The relationship between virtue theory and feminist ethics has been identified. Now that we have understood virtue theory, let us have a specific view of feminist ethics which had gain popularity during the time of Carol Gilligan. Gilligan differentiate the social formation and role among men and women. She stated that men have abstract thinking which sees moral problems arising from conflicts and solves it by appealing to the rights of the individual. On the other hand, women focus on specific situation, seeing moral problems arising from the needs in relationships and solve it through moral obligation and appealing the rights of others(Preston, 47).

Marketing foundations & Applications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing foundations & Applications - Essay Example Product development often becomes impossible and critised because of the following reasons: shortage of important ideas in certain areas; fragmented markets; social and governmental constraints; cost of development; capital shortages; faster required development time; and shorter life cycle. New product development often entails modifying an existing product or creating totally different offerings to satisfy a current need. In these product developments, business organizations may encounter hardships in identifying features which adds value to the customer. There are cases when current products cannot be enhanced because of shortage of ideas that can improve the offering. A good example of detergent soaps. Companies may be hindered in developing new detergent products which can boost the satisfaction of customer in this particular product. Next, product development can be unlikely because the business organization is operating in a fragmented market which implies that they need to aim their new products at smaller market segments thereby generating only meager profits and revenues. When developing new products, companies should take into account all of its current market and not just a segment of it. If not, the new product developed will completely change the positioning of the business organization in the industry and may also discourage their current customers in purchasing the new product. With the increasing clamor for being socially responsible, companies are often under the scrutiny and regulations of social organizations and the government. New product development can be critised because of the hazard that these products can bring to the consuming public. An example of this is the growing concern for obesity in the global arena which forces business organizations to modify their products and add only those which have more health

Academic essay on Fatigue Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Academic on Fatigue - Essay Example The fatigue after cancer treatment is normal, but it is recommended that if it persists, then one should consult their physicians for assistance lest it develops into a more complex condition. This resulting fatigue can be a problem in itself, and as such, requires to be managed. To evaluate on the potential evaluations which can save the situation, this study text will analyse the case of one John, who is a patient recovering from cancer and is experiencing fatigue from the chemotherapy. He feels that his life has been limited by the fatigue and requests a mediation strategy to help him out of the situation. The study highlights the causal factors of fatigue, an intervention approach to curb his current fatigue, and finally an approach to prevent him from experiencing fatigue during the rest of his chemotherapy treatment. This study text is based on a cancer patient, John, who is a recuperating cancer patient. He has undergone surgery and included in his after-treatment is chemotherapy. He has undergone four chemotherapy sessions while in hospital but the fifth he receives from an outpatient clinic. The chemotherapy is having side effects on him, and especially fatigue which comes with cancer treatment. He complains of excessive tiredness, has reduced his working time, and still feels tired after resting for long hours. Additionally, he has maintained his pre-treatment diet, and says exercising at the gym is not necessary since he has been participating in some projects which keep him busy such as helping in local charities and looking after his grandchildren. He therefore requests information as to how he can deal with his current fatigue, and the extra fatigue expected as he continues with his chemotherapy Fatigue resulting from cancer and chemotherapy is similar to the common fatigue. It is simply lack of energy which adds up as tiredness and weakness. A person with fatigue feels that their normal

Photography Essay Example for Free

Photography Essay The purpose of photography is to present to the viewer a view of the world that is not normally seen. With the advent of fashion photography however, the view of this world is skewered. Fashion models do not present a true reality but a made-up world in which being too thin is regarded as high fashion. With works such as Lachapelle the use of morphing reality and creating one’s own reality is more and more kosher in the world of high fashion. It is with the re-evaluation of beauty that fashion photography has enchanted and changed the world. This surmise can be discovered in the way women and men dress, in their progression of outfits, daily work clothes, celebratory clothes and all of this reflected in the economic up rise of the consumers desire to be in fashion for the season. LaChapelle explores and exploits this need through his photography and although not always paying attention to the status quo on what fashion photography is, he presents his viewers with his own perspective on beauty through fashion. The topic of fashion has always held my interest, especially fashion photography. The way in which the photographer can create different realms of existence through different angles, colored lenses, and outfits has been a great intrigue of my interest in art. My favorite photographer is David LaChapelle which is why I choose him for the research and analysis part of this project. The way that he does fashion photography is a reinvention of it. He does not just accomplish what no one else can accomplish in photography but he also puts humor into his pieces as will be explained later. He makes fun of fashion, or the extremes which people put on fashion by creating a world through photography in which his eloquence matches this humor as can be seen in his Shoes to Die For photograph. Thus, he is a photographer I admire because he does not take himself too seriously. Introduction Fashion photography is about portability and malleability. A model can be incorporated into a fantastical environment for which only the word surreal can be used to define. In modern day photography there is a myriad of photographers each striving for a new lens, a new way in which to portray a fantastic image. In the history of fashion, nothing is so transcendental than photography. The image in fashion has been primarily focused on the model and how well the model sells the clothes; it is in the photograph that mutation over the decades has skyrocketed into a true art form. Fashion photography does not succumb to the norms of portraiture that Daguerre made famous but to focal points of beauty in landscape, cityscape and how well assembled the model appears in those scenes. Body Media With the issue of thinness, the disease anorexia is conjured up; since the advocating of the media towards a thinner woman’s body, disorders such as anorexia and bulimia have become predominant among women and men. In the Western culture this rising phenomenon has become a central fact for overly conscious people who focus on their appearance, as Dittmar and Howard state, â€Å"†¦they learn to see themselves as objects to be looked at and evaluated by appearance. This pressure is constantly reinforced by a strong cultural ideal of female beauty, and that ideal has become synonymous with thinness† (477-478). With this notion in the forefront of the paper other issues such as model size as they are propagated through the media become a rising concern. Dittmar and Howard go on to state that roughly 20% of models in the fashion industry are underweight which in term clinically diagnosis them with the condition of anorexia nervosa. These conditions give further rise to other women’s problems. Since the cultural idea of thinness as perpetuated by the media and the fashion industry is to have increasingly thin body types, the average woman or man tries dieting and exercising to keep up with the ‘standard’. When the average woman or man finds that they are still not ‘normal’ according to the cultural guidelines of the word, they begin to be dissatisfied with their bodies which leads to low self-esteem, â€Å"Thus it stands to reason that women are likely to experience body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem and even eating disorders if they internalize and strive for a beauty ideal that is stringently thin and essentially unattainable† (478). The mass media is the continual hindrance to a healthy body image for Americans. The media is a social influence that reinforces these ideals through repetition and product placement. The media is a visual stimulation letting the American public voyeuristically fantasize about ultra thin models and having a body (sometimes these bodies are digitally re-mastered) that provides relative pleasure in shape. Dittmar and Howard’s article highlights one such concern with the UK government in which they held a conference in June 2000 to discuss this issue of thinness and the media and to in essence debate about banning the use of these too thin models as media advertisement since the image essentially gave permission to the public to suffer and toil over gaining a great body, no matter the public acquired anorexia nervosa or other clinical conditions. The detriment of this fact, the fact that thinness is amounting to such problems as anorexia nervosa raise many social and cultural issues. The cultural issue may best be summarized in Dittmar and Howard’s article as they quote Naomi Campbell and Claudia Schiffer, both spokespersons for top models, â€Å"†¦(s)tatistics have repeatedly shown that if you stick a beautiful skinny girl on the cover of a magazine you sell more copies†¦Agencies would say that we supply the women and the advertisers, our clients, want. The clients would say that hey are selling a product and responding to consumer demand. At the end of the day, it is a business and the fact is that these models sell the products† (478). Thus, the opposite side of the spectrum is arguing that businesses or model clients are merely representing something that already exists within the cultural dynamic. The argument is that thin models represent what people want to see and so the products the model’s are advertising sell more copies. The clients of the modeling agencies are merely tied into the vicious cycle of believing what they want to believe. Although this point seems somewhat valid, the validation stops when such perpetuating leads to serious illnesses (in some cases anorexia or bulimia have lead to death). It can plainly be deciphered from the above text that body image is created by the media, as Guttman quotes in her article â€Å"Advertising, My Mirror† in an interview with Christian Blachas, â€Å"That image comes to us from the fashion world. People like to say advertising starts trends like the recent wave of ‘fashion pornography. ’ But this came straight from designers and fashion journalists. The job of advertising is to pick up on trends. It’s rarely subversive because brands don’t gain anything from shocking people too much. Advertising’s a remarkable mirror, but it doesn’t start fads† (25). Consequently, Blachas is stating that if fault is to be placed anywhere for the over correction of dieting, then the blame is not on the fashion industry but on advertisers who are the ones who pick up trends and allow these trends to filter down to every consumer; thus, while 20% of models are diagnosed as too ‘thin’ this relevant percentage can be related to the American public. Since the blame seems to be resting with the advertisers, another close look at the media needs to be given. The media perpetuates fads and other culturally influential eras, but this seems to have heightened within the past few decades. The bombardment the public receives from the media and especially from the advertising end of the media is seen not only in commercials but in product placement in music videos, and movies. Magazines also aid in distributing the advertisements’ ideals as can be seen in repeated simulation on television soap operas, just as much as from fashion magazines, as Hargreaves and Tiggemann state in â€Å"Longer term implications of responsiveness to ‘thin-ideal’: support for a cumulative hypothesis of body image disturbance? , â€Å"Although this evidence appears to support the media’s negative impact on body image, various methodological limitations need to be acknowledged. In particular, the causal direction of correlations between body dissatisfaction and media use remains a challenge. The causal direction is clear in controlled laboratory research†¦One possible link between individual reactive episodes of dissatisfaction in response to specific media images and the development of body image is that enduring attitudes, beliefs, and feelings about bodies and appearances accumulate over time through repeated exposure to ideals of attractiveness in the media† (466). Thus, the level of insecurity is maintained in the public through the barrage of repeated body images through advertisements. In the composition of photography there are many elements which define the medium; line, color, focus, brightness, scenery, shadow, etc. The evolution of fashion photography hinged upon the mass reproduction of images in magazines. In Germany, in the early 20th century, fashion became fully popular and available to the populace through Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung and Munchner Illustrierte Presse . It is in the magazine world that fashion photography began it’s popularity . As soon as fashion hit a mainstream cord with the public, magazines sales soared and thus was born the beginning of the history of fashion photography. There was great demand for magazines; especially fashion. Women and men would see what to wear, how to wear to it, what was in style and the modern world finally had the leisure to pursue the market of clothes as fashion. With this demand installed in the public, it was up to the photographers of the early fashion industry to come up with new ways in which to depict the model, the clothes and entice women and men to dress according to what was portrayed in the photos. This is where composition of the photo is required to ensure new and deliberate methods of fashion portrayal. With the oncoming age of color introduced in photography in the 1930’s and 1940’s as the encyclopedia elaborates, â€Å"Nonetheless, color remained a sidelight in photography until the 1930s because it required considerable patience and expense on the part of both photographer and printer. The dominance of color in terms of reproduction and everyday picture-taking did not begin until 1935, when Kodak started to sell Kodachrome transparency film, and was completed by the introduction of color-print films and Ektachrome films in the 1940s†. With color photography, the realm of the fashion world drastically changed. The limits of black and white and sepia toned magazine covers gave way to brilliant exhibits of color combinations, and a wide range of fabrics that women and men could now see, duplicate, or buy. Fashion photography changed from depicting high-class society women to models in every day clothing. Professional photographers were then counted on to resonant the possibility of how fashion should co-exist with society. With Vogue and Harper’s Bazaar photographers were hired full time to create, in the magazine, a gallery of fabric eye candy dressed on a model with a backdrop. June 1, 1947 Vogue cover. The most notable photographers at the time were pictorialists , Edward Steichen and Englishman Cecil Beaton. The incorporation of art into photography made the photographs more believable as high fashion. Steichen and Beaton glamorized the models with enhanced lighting effects, which lionized the models and made the magazine world believe that fashion through photography was otherworldly. Among new techniques being used, the online encyclopedia states, â€Å"American Edward Steichen and Englishman Cecil Beaton, both one-time pictorialists. These photographers began to use elaborate lighting schemes to achieve the same sort of glamorizing effects being perfected by Clarence Bull as he photographed new starlets in Hollywood, California. Martin Munkacsi initiated a fresh look in fashion photography after Harper’s Bazaar hired him in 1934. He moved the models outdoors, where he photographed them as active, energetic modern women†. So began the movement of high fashion. Martin Munkacsi photograph. In the movement, the use of fashion as advertisement was key in developing a market for fashion photography. It is through marketing advertising, that fashion photographers began to be highlighted, as the encyclopedia states, â€Å"The new approach to photography in the editorial content of magazines was matched by an increasingly sophisticated use of photography in advertisements. Steichen, while also working for Vogue and Vanity Fair magazines, became one of the highest-paid photographers of the 1930s through his work for the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency†. These photographers, as well as others, helped to make advertising an art form through use of portraying model’s hands in product placement, and altogether catering to ever-widening audience of magazine buyers. Fashion photography changed through the utilization and realization that product sold only through its modeling and photographic depiction.

Psychological Theories of Chronic Pain

Psychological Theories of Chronic Pain The operant approach to chronic pain was intended to concentrate upon external pain-induced responses and the social implications of the nature of feedback. The operant model has been particularly described by Fordyce et al (1968, 1976) based upon the work of other individuals in the behavioural field, for example Skinner. The operant theory implies that the genesis of the pain should be distinguished from pain behaviours and the articulation of pain.External displays of pain such as wincing may be conditioned just as any other type of behaviour. If the patient receives positive feedback in response to pain behaviours, they may remain after the usual time of healing for that ailment. There is a respectable body of evidence to justify the use of the operant model in response to chronic pain, yet there is a relatively miniscule level of consensus about why they work and the validity of their theoretical foundations. The operant theory is supported by research projects that intimate the success of behavioural treatments, but there are several problematic elements in these studies which have been recently addressed. The troubling issues include the antecedent belief that all pain behaviours are dysfunctional, the obstacles to continuing the learned behaviours subsequent to treatment and the reluctance of some chronic pain patients to embrace operant modes of treatment. Essentially, the nature of the sum of the problems is dualistic, and can either be addressed as complications with interpreting pain behaviours or the inevitable failure rate that all treatments face. These issues, salient though they are, are not exhaustive. The operant model fails to recognise the fact that the patient’s personal interpretation of their pain and the changes they are experiencing maybe important. Acknowledging this can clear the way for cognitive theories to add something to operant methods of treatment. Indeed, elements that influence behaviour in general and pain behaviour in particular are complex and multi-faceted. It is seldom evident that a single cause has led to a single effect. Although it is true that pain-related behaviours are often modified during the course of a treatment programme, it is not necessarily true that it is for the reasons uppermost in the minds of the experts monitoring them. In brief, rational thought cannot condone the notion that the operant model of chronic pain is true because treatment programmes utilising behavioural methods have been shown to alter the behaviour of patients suffering from chronic pain. A particular assertion that has come under scrutiny is the idea that patients modify their verbal expressions of pain in response to reactions from spouses. The methods and logic that lead to this conclusion are questionable and so must be their perceived contribution to the validity of the operant model. Further, some studies claiming to provide empirical support for the operant model only partially adhere to its theoretical roots. Other studies which are more methodologically sound have suspect sample gathering procedures. The findings of these studies still hold merit for the cognitive model of chronic pain, though ardent followers of the operant model will inevitably be disappointed. The fact is that the operant model of chronic pain does not have as strong a body of empirical evidence to back it up as its patrons would like. As a result of the questionable reliability of the operant theory, many researchers have begun to actively espouse the cognitive-behavioural theories of chr onic pain. Cognitive Behavioural Account of Chronic PainsThe cognitive-behavioural approach to chronic pain purported to contain the essentials of the operant account of chronic pain, but added space for human emotions, cognitions and mental coping mechanisms. This approach, like surgical and pharmacological interventions, attempt to eliminate or reduce it. Rates of failure in achieving this have led researchers to turn from attempted pain reduction to other objectives like active rehabilitation. One study compared and contrasted two behavioural treatments for ongoing pain.The first treatment focused on abandoning strivings to overcome pain and invest more energy in achieving other aims in life. The second treatment was a traditional cognitive behavioural treatment stressing the development of pain-reducing mechanisms. The treatment incorporating acceptance and re-focussing proved more successful than attempts to master the pain in patients suffering from chronic pain. Initial formulations of a cognitive behavioural approach to chronic pain were predicated upon the realisation that programmes with the behavioural label did not contain only behavioural content. Behavioural experts acknowledged the necessity of addressing the cognitive functioning of a patient as well as his or her behavioural patterns. At present, the role of cognition in reporting extremity of pain, endeavours to successfully deal with pain, emotions and level of pain-related incapacity is solidly documented. The relationship between cognitive functioning and pain has revealed a number of important themes. The way in which patients mentally interpret their pain is predictive of their response and their level of functioning. For example, patients to perceive their pain as an indication of more damage often spend more energy attempting to avoid their pain and become less able to function naturally as a result. Patients who catastrophise their pain may experience augmented levels of d epression compared with those who do not. Depression has also been linked to behavioural functioning and both of these may be affected by the patient’s attempts to predict or control his pain. The sum of the implications of these findings points to the near certainty that cognitive functioning must be considered when attempting to construct any comprehensive and effective model of chronic pain. The cognitive behavioural theory does not go as far as to suggest that certain cognitions lead to pain; the relationship is not as simplistic as that. There is substantial evidence to suggest that cognitive activity related to pain can help to create coping mechanisms that are either helpful or dysfunctional. The nature of the coping mechanisms can directly affect the degree to which chronic pain infringes on continued functioning. Some behaviourists allude to the role of cognitions in their research by referring to external or environmental factors. Strict behaviourism continues to be the preferred method of treatment and as such, willcontinue to concentrate on the transformation of overt behaviours. Evidence for the need to include cognitive and other factors in dealing with chronic pain is becoming increasingly pressing, and it must be acknowledged that including one treatment session on cognitive theory and praxis does not magically transform a behavioural programme into a cognitive behavioural programme. Even the cognitive behavioural theory itself is in need of more complete incorporation of cognitive methods.There are simple questions that can be raised in the minds of chronic pain patients that may transform the way that they think about and respond to their pain. The claims of balanced research pale in comparison to the pressing needs of patients suffering daily who could benefit from cognitive interve ntions. Treatment for chronic pain must be addressed in terms of cognition and behaviour; even if behaviour is the founding principle upon which a treatment is based, it must be recognised that behaviour acquires meaning in a cognitive sphere. There have been propositions to reformulate the theoretical construction of the cognitive behavioural approach. Modifications ofthe approach start with the conception that the issues arising from the presence of chronic pain stem from patient reactions to their pain.Reactions are conceptualised as covering the sum of cognitive processes and not merely external actions. Dividing characteristics between patients who are anxious and suffering a notable level o ncapacitation and those who are able to maintain a level of functioning despite their pain are not found in the sensations of pain experienced by the patient but in the content of the internal cognitive assessment the patient carries out about their own pain. Some cognitive behavioural appraisals of pain are primarily concerned with the meaning that the individual patient attributes to his or her pain. The reformulated cognitive behavioural model of chronic pain proposes that the interaction of various phenomenon such as internal appraisals of pain, learning history, mood, avoidance behaviours and environmental influences can become habitual to an extent that negative consequences of the pain, such as level of disability, may persist despite the removal of the sensory aspect of the pain. Motor behaviours that attempt to evade the pain in some way may continue after the pain has subsided or lessened and therefore the cognitions that prompted those beliefs continue. An acute sense of worry or anxiety may heighten safety or defence mechanisms perpetuate an autonomic arousal that maintains positive feedback for the notion that there is something wrong with the patient. Additionally, psychological dysfunction such as depression or mild panic can augment the chances of patients making calculative mistakes regarding their pain including assessing the pain as being worse than it actually i s. This will reinforce the cycles of avoidance that the patient has previously used. This particular reconfiguration of the cognitive behavioural model further accepts that anxiety and other maladaptive behaviours such asmisusing medica tion can easily invoke arousal encourage the continuance of maladaptive behaviours. The model also takes into account the drive for the patient to seek reassurance about their pain and they ways that they deal with it. They attempt to reconcile any feedback received with their own beliefs about their pain and its related effects. Many chronic pain patients live with the trepidation that the continued existence of chronic pain indicates that further damage is being done to their bodies, which will in turn exacerbate the pain they experience. This may raise their levels of anxiety, which affects their ability to think rationally and calmly about their pain. They may request more medical procedures—tests or treatments—to provide empirical evidence to themselves about the state of their bodies. The reconceptualised model ind icates that the response of medical professionals in these situations may unknowingly encourage this kind of cognitive presumption and therefore positively reinforce incapacity or a passive response to chronic pain. The model articulated above is extensively based upon other cognitive behavioural models of chronic pain and can even take into account theories about the nature of the meta-cognitions of the patient. If, for example, the patient cognitively interprets the pain or cognitions related to the pain indicate something negative about them as a person, then they may make efforts to overcome or control such thoughts in attempts to protect themselves from further negative consequen ces. For example, if the patient fears that thinking about his or her pain is going to make them ‘crazy’ then they may make strong efforts to alter their thoughts about the pain in order to stop themselves from descending into mental illness. This may stem from a fear that since their physical health has deteriorated, their mental health is under threat as well. In addition, some patients may think that the more time they spend thinking about their pain, the more serious and damaging it will be. The mo del asserts that the more cognitive energy is spent trying not to have pain-related thoughts, the more frequent they may become and the anxiety levels of the patient may continue to rise, prompting more and more pain-related cognitions. These thoughts may increase and the patient may feel that the more they have these thoughts, the more damage they are doing to themselves. Patients can end up caught in a web of cognitive gymnastics about their chronic pain, which diverts energy from dealing with the pain in constructive ways and maintaining a satisfactory level of functioning. The cognitions that a patient may develop concerning their chronic pain are the product of complex and intricate synthesis of experiences, cultural forces and even childhood learning. Patients do not interpret their pain only in terms of their immediate situation, but bring a variety of other elements to bear upon the way that they translate their ideas about pain and what it means into their responses to their own pain. If they have had pain in the past, or have had close relationships with individuals who have suffered pain, the express and null curriculum of their experiences will provide them with a set of beliefs about pain, what it means and what can be done about it. Cultural ideas about how to respond to pain will also affect their evaluations about the role of pain in the life of an individual. Spouseresponses can also be important factors in interpreting chronic pain.It can also be said that behaviour that demonstrates acceptance of chronic pain stems from the collaboration of past and present circumstances, as well as the emotive and interpersonal influences of the present. The way that the spouse expresses his or her beliefs about pain can either reinforce or contradict the beliefs of the patient. If the patient believes that his condition or experience of chronic pain has made him incapacitated and the spouse behaves solicitously, the patient’s beliefs about his incapacitation can be confirmed and may override any other input about the patient’s ability to function normally. The cognitive behavioural approach has built into its tenets the capacity for the patient to learn new coping strategies and introduce new cognitions without an awareness of the reality of his or her situation. This may be particularly pertinent in the area of medication, where any form of relief from pain, whether it is actual or perceived, may be a response to thoughts that the pain is out of control and the patient is unable to carry on without the presence of medication. The cognitive behavioral approach also asserts that these types of cognitions and resulting actions are cemented together and work in partnership to perpetuate one another. If a patient thinks that performing a particular action will lead to further damage and pain, he will avoid that action. Thus, he will not discover any information to the contrary and will continue to believe that the presence of pain means that he should not engage in such an activity. Even when patients try to accomplish certain activities, if they do so utilising protective methods, they may only confirm the danger of the activity in their minds and become dependent upon the protective measure instead of achieving their full potential in functioning. It is becoming more and more accepted that it is prudent to explore chronic pain from a cognitive behavioral approach. There are a number of reasons for this growing confidence. First, it has been asserted that the reformulated cognitive model explains the breadth of evidence more extensively than other models. Second, the hypotheses that are put forth by the model may easily be empirically tested in order to determine whether they are statistically supported and theoretically sound. This makes them infinitely more useful for the practical work of treatment, as they can offer statistically supported predictions for the type of treatment that will be most useful in various situations.Obtaining the ability to pinpoint pivotal cognitive functions should lead to accurate treatments in place of the relatively arbitrary approach sometimes implemented by professionals. For several years, the research and treatment of chronic pain concentrated on coping mechanisms as the pre-eminent behavioural factor in adjustment. Yet when coping approaches began to be compared with other types of behavioural approaches such as acceptance of chronic pain, significant conclusions were reached regarding the potential of the respective approaches to predict disability and distress. It has been asserted that there are fundamental problems with coping as a comprehensive adjustment mechanism. The issues with coping are conceptual and empirical in nature and stem from its reliance upon cognitive responses. An empirical study demonstrated that acceptance of chronic pain led to decreased intensity of symptoms and a better quality of life. Acceptance of pain was conclusively shown to be superior to attempting to cope with pain. It is possible that acceptance of pain may be accomplished through a variety of methods. Some of the treatments currently in use, such as those involving cognitive-behavioural methods can help to make pain more acceptable. This is true even for those cognitive-behavioural methods that focus on mastering pain. For example, it could be that diminished avoidance and augmented experience of pain as a result of more control that help patients to accept the pain in their lives. If patients are exposed to more pain they may develop diminished emotional reactions and begin to understand that pain intensity is different in various situations. This understanding can teach them that the pain they suffer is not as intense as they first thought. In addition, teaching methods of behavioural control can result in alternations to the patient’s internalised definition of a painful event, making it easier to endure. The role of values in a contextual cognitive-behavioural approach has been assessed in terms of the relationships between the values of chronic pain patients and the success of following their daily routines. It is often easy for chronic pain patients to expend great amounts of effort struggling with pain rather than focusing their energies on living according to their values. Living according to values was defined in this particular study as acting according to what they care most about and what they want their life to stand for. If pain is not then reduced, the patient may feel that not only have their limited amounts of energy been wasted, but they have also neglected their core purposes in life, which may result in further angst and anxiety. In a study examining the process of living according to personal values while suffering from chronic pain, 140 pain patients completed an inventory of values including categories such as family, friends, health, work and growth. The patients were also asked to record information regarding their pain, anxiety and depression. The results showed that the highest values for the patients were family and health, and the values of least importance overall were friends, growth and learning. The patients generally did not feel satisfied that they were living life according to their values, and this could be because of their level of physical and emotive functioning. The results of the study further demonstrated that those who achieved more succ ess atliving according to their values reported higher levels of acceptance, although acceptance could not reliably account for the sum of the success. Although patients felt that overall they were not living according to their values, there was a significantly higher rate of success at living according to family values than maintaining health. In practical terms, this means that out of the areas that patients value most, they were able to achieve much more success in one area, family than the other, health. Approaches to chronic pain that are contextually based deal with cognitive issues in a different manner than normalcogn itive-behavioural approaches. Approaches that are contextually based seek to change the operation of negative thoughts and the way in which they are experienced, which affects other behaviours. A large quantity of the work devoted to these types of approaches involves releasing maladaptive cognitive forces on behaviour and intensifying behavioural elasticity through cognitive de-fusion. Approaches that are founded upon values add an aspect to this type of treatment.Articulating values during treatment for chronic pain is equivalent to adding cognitive influences to behaviour sequences. On a practical level, the conceptualisations of the cognitive behavioural model of chronic pain can help to explain how patients deal with their pain, particularly the cognitive and meta-cognitive interactions they have with their symptoms and other factors thatinfluence their quality of life and their approach to their pain. If,for example, the patient is in the situation where the pain persists and further tests and treatments prove unsuccessful, it may be easy for the cognitive components of the mind of the patient to feel defeated and to acquire a learned helplessness. The patient may subconsciously or even consciously feel that all of their cognitive efforts to this point have proved futile and therefore they may be paralysed by the notion that whatever cognitive energy they put into dealing with their pain will be to no avail. They may even come to believe that any further medical intervention will be of no use to them. These types of thoughts can affect the effort that patient s put into their treatment.They may be less participatory and become increasingly passive even in the face of extensive medical procedures. They may cease to be emotionally and mentally invested in working with the medical professionals to achieve the best outcome possible for their situation.If patients feel that treatment will be useless and they make less effort, their treatment may not be as effective as it could have been. A treatment outcome that is less than optimal will only reinforce the patient’s sense of helplessness and they may even be dismissed as unhelpful or disengaged by medical staff. If these patients are viewed from the perspective of the cognitive behavioural model of chronic pain, however, they will be perceived not as unmotivated but as individuals with maladaptive cognitions. This understanding of their behaviour would make them prime candidates for cognitive interventions,where their chances of improvement would be quite high. There is much empirical support for the cognitive behavioural model, and it has been found consistent with a wide scope of researchout comes. There is particularly strong support for the idea that when patients worry about their pain, they are more likely to scrutinise their pain, which removes effort and thought from other activities and may make the pain worse than it is. These findings offer support for the cognitive theory that hypervigilance and anxiety are closely related. In other studies, anxiety and stress have been found to predict ambiguous ailments in patients suffering from chronic pain, which supports the theory that hypervigilance may create or exacerbate the ill health of the patient or at least the patients perception of the state of their health. In addition, pain-related trepidation was discovered to predict evading strategies more accurately than the intensity of the pain or the physical ailment. Here, the researchers concluded that their findings were not as supportive of the operant model of chronic pain as the cognitive behavioural model. Further, evidence exists that supports the notion that striving to avert pain-related cognitions may actually intensify pain sensations. Though it is advisable to treat this particular study with some caution, there is more substantial research to support the related notion that trying to block pain-related thoughts is counterproductive and will worsen anxiety. Related to this are the theories surrounding autonomic arousal, which have also received empirical backing. It has been asserted that patients suffering from chronic pain do not respond to pain in the same ways as patients whose pain is not chronic. This is true despite the fact that they do not demonstrate significant difference s from non-chronic pain patients in other areas. When the responses of chronic pain patients are measured with regard to distressing activities, the pain levels measured increased dramatically. This was not true for normal activities. Therefore, it seems safe to adhere to a model of chronic pain in which the state of arousal prompted by particular activities directly affects the pain experienced by the patient. Other elements in the cognitive behavioural model have also received support. In particular the role of medication and the appropriateness of use can affect patients’ complaints regarding symptoms and level of incapacity. One study examined the contrasting characteristics of chronic pain for patients whose pain could be justified by medical explanations and those whose pain could not be explained in medical terminology. The authors found remarkable variations in a number of variables, such as excessive prescribing and internal processing in the group of patients whose pain could not be medically explained. They went on to assert that when medical professionals in this type of situation intimate that it could be psychosomatic, they reinforce the patient’s self-concept of an ill person, if not physically, then mentally. Reacting in this fashion often fails to convince the patient that there is nothing wrong and instead, motivates their search for a plausible explanation f or their pain. They may demand more tests and interventions in search of legitimising their pain. The important point here is that the responses of medical professionals to patient expressions of pain can have a significant impact on pain-rel atedcognitions and thus on their responses to treatment. The sum of this evidence provides legitimisation for approaching chronic pain in a way that is much like the way that anxiety and obsessions are approached. This suggests that if obsessions can be treated, then so can maladaptive pain-related cognitions and behaviours. While the need for further research remains in certain areas, such as the clarification of the significance of safety behaviours and the effectiveness of specific cognitive behavioural intervention programmes, there is strong evidence that cognitive behavioural treatments will overtake operant treatments as the preferred method for addressing chronic pain. Sharp (2001) concludes his discussion of psychological theories of chronic pain by arriving at the destination of cognitive behavioural models akin to those used to treat anxiety. He regards the operant model as having too many problematic issues to be considered a reliable source of chronic pain treatment. He goes even further, to suggest that many of the cognitive behavioural modes currently in use are hampered by the fact that they continue to espouse behavioural principles that have outlived their usefulness. According to Sharp, reformulated cognitive theories are needed in order to satisfactorily assess patient cognitions regarding their pain. While behavioural factors should not be completely ignored, they should nonetheless always be considered within a cognitive framework. The concept of reformulating cognitive models is supported by the evidence and appears to be more helpful in finding real scientific meaning therein. Treatments involving cognitive behaviour therapy and behaviour therapy for chronic pain in adults have been the subject of meta-analysis. The researchers recognised that there is persuasive data for the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) in augmenting the functioning ability of patients suffering from chronic pain. There is also conclusive evidence that CBT can enhance emotional states, reduce discomfort and minimise behaviour that stems from a sense of being incapacitated. However, it has been noted that in a clinical treatment context, CBT is not often presented as an option for individuals suffering from chronic pain. Physical, pharmacological and medical treatments are provided as options even though there is often less empirical evidence for their success. This study sought to do a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials in this area.The researchers indentified 25 trials that were appropriate candidates for meta-analysis and compared the effica cy of CBT with various other treatments. In this study, the experts were concerned primarily with two issues. The first was whether or not CBT is an effective treatment for chronic pain in the sense that it is better to undergo CBT than to have no treatment at all. The second issue was whether CBT was better than other available treatments which involve activity as part of the curriculum. The outcomes of the study indicated that CBT that are active in nature are effective. CBT made marked improvements in emotional state, intensity of pain and cognitive measures of coping with the pain. Additionally, pain-related behaviour and level of functioning, both in an individual and a social context were improved. The results of this study led to the conclusion that CBT is indeed an effective treatment for chronic pain in adults. So, too, is behavioural therapy. The study raised certain issues which would be best considered in other studies, because attempting to treat chronic pain from apsychological perspective is quite a difficult endeavour. The outcomes of such treatment cannot always be broken down to determine which variable caused or helped to cause a particular outcome. Especially where psychological methodologies and cognitive evaluations are concerned, there is an ambiguity in proving the cause and effect of research methods that is not easily overcome. The treatment of chronic pain must be recognised as an ongoing and complex process with a significantly complicating number of variables involved. Even when the greatest efforts are made to ensure the independent performance of professionals and to shield the patients from any hint of bias, the narrowing of treatment and research cond itions is extremely difficult. The acceptance of chronic pain involves intentionally allowing pain, with all of its cognitive and emotional implications, to be present in one’s life, when the willingness results in increased functioning capabilities for the patient. Acceptance means responding to pain without attempting to avoid or control it and continuing to function regardless of the presence of chronic pain. Acceptance is especially pertinent when previous attempts at control or avoidance have limited the quality of the patient’s life. Patients suffering from chronic pain who take steps to accept it report fewer instances of anxiety, medical intervention and depression. Two elements are needed to produce acceptance: pain willingness and activity engagement. The development of acceptance is an ongoing process that progresses with experience of pain and relevant social factors. Further, acceptance of chronic pain involves choosing not to become embroiled in fruitless internal struggles that may inc rease the intensity of the pain and its ability to disrupt active functioning. Acceptance is a new psychological approach and conceives human suffering in new terms.Acceptance is located in the cognitive and behavioural approaches and therefore has empirical psychological traditions to lend it credibility. One study demonstrated that diminishing anxiety and augmented acceptance of chronic pain might transfer sufferers from a dysfunctional coping approach to a successful one. The study empirically categorised patients suffering from chronic pain into three categories: dysfunctional, interpersonally distressed or adaptive copers. The researchers in the study believed that identifying the characteristics that distinguish one group from another may help to crystallise the behavioural mechanisms that facilitate acclimation to pain. The subjects in the study were classified according to the Multidimensional Pain Inventory and relative scores on pain acceptance and pain-related anxiety were examined. The results demonstrated that patients in the dysfunctional group cited more anxiety related to their chronic pain as well as lower acceptance of pain than those who were interpersonally distressed or copers. Add