Learner-to-Educator Ratio and its Impact on the Quality of Education Thesis

Learner-to-Educator Ratio and its Impact on the Quality of Education in South African Primary Schools - Thesis Example Though the number of educators has also increased but not at the rate desired to keep pace with student enrolment. Presently there are some 400,000 teachers employed in primary schools. The success of the primary school system is judged by academic performance based mainly on the level of passes in the systemic evaluations that take place in Grade 3 and 6. In 2001 the learner achievement results showed low achievement in numeracy and literacy. There are a number of determinants of academic success such as socioeconomic background of learners, learning facilities, resources, quality of the teachers and learner-to-educator ratio. In 2004 the grade 6 national systemic evaluation indicated that although a new curriculum and learning materials was developed and instituted throughout the primary school system learning achievement was still below par. A great majority of learners scored at the ‘non-achieved’ level (lower than 40% overall) with 41% in natural sciences, 38% in languages and some 27% in mathematics. Only 31% in natural sciences, 28% in languages and 12% in mathematics were functioning at or above the required grade 6 level (scores above 50%) and outstanding (scores over 70%) combined (Bulunga, Daniel, Southall, Lutchman (2006). With the increasing number of learners entering primary school and the low rate of increase of the number of educators it is prudent to note that the disparity between the two will eventually become large and its effects far reaching. As one of the determinants of academic performance the learner-to-educator ratio defined as the average number of pupils per educator at a particular level of education in a given school year becomes important to the delivery of high educational standards. There is a view amongst some researchers and educators suggesting that smaller classes has the benefit of allowing teachers to have the opportunity to devote much more time to every student in an effort

Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Risk Management - Essay Example Often, an infrastructural construction project involves a number of phases before final completion and transfer to the contract awarding authority. The phases include the appraisal phase, the design phase, the construction phase, and the operation phase. Although there are some cross-cutting risks across the phases, some are unique to each phase and hence it’s often important to independently review the risks in each phase. This paper addresses the risks likely to be encountered in each phase of an infrastructure construction project. However, before doing this, it is important to highlight the key steps involved in risk control process including risk identification, risk management, and risk response. Risk identification Risk identification involves determination of the risks are likely to impact on the project as well as documentation of the characteristics associated with the risks identified. This is not a one-time environment, rather it should be performed regularly and m ore especially through the whole project cycle. This is due to the fact that risks themselves are dynamic and change with time. Risk identification must be able to address internal as well as external risks. Internal risks are often within the projects control and as such can be eliminated or minimized through internal mechanisms. On the other hand, external risks are often beyond the project’s influence. Generally, there are a whole range of tools which can be utilized in risk identification including brainstorming, interviews, feedback from past projects, specialists use, and workshops, among others. Risk management This is a part as crucial as the risk identification itself. Often failures at this point can cost the organization lots of money and time. Risk management involves determination of the appropriate control tools as well as the appropriate responses towards dealing with the emerging or risks or their impact whenever they occur. Risk management involves risk quant ification where there is an evaluation of risks as well as the risk’s interactions as a means of assessing range of possible project outcomes. This is mainly aimed at determination of the risk events which warrant response. The process is often complicated due to a number of factors although not limited to how opportunities as well as threats can interact in unpredictable ways or a single risk event which constitutes multiple effects. Often it goes beyond simple mathematical expressions in order to attain precision and reliability. Risk response Determination of Appropriate Risk response techniques is crucial to successful control of the risks. A combination of management techniques are often employed in evaluation of the best methods suited the risk faced by infrastructure projects. These include risk reduction, retention of risk, and transfer of risk (Richardson, 2010, p. 23). Identifying appropriate risk management techniques therefore requires assessing of the interaction effects touching on a range of factors including safety, construction procedures and operations, financial decisions and strategic decision making. Risk reduction takes a two dimensional perspective. This includes reducing the likelihood or frequency of events occurrence and reduction of the consequences that an event is expected to have in case it takes place (Richardson, 2010). Risk transfer

Research about the Radiation Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research about the Radiation Safety - Essay Example This paper aims at discussing radiation and its safety, how radiation can be measured, how it affects the lives of human beings and how these negative effects can be reduced. Radiation is majorly categorized into either non-ionizing or ionizing radiation. This classification is done in accordance to whether the radiation ionizes or does not ionize common compound matter. A radiation that ionizes ordinary chemical matter is referred to as ionizing radiation while that that does not cause ionization to chemical matter is known as non-ionizing radiation. The term radiation is under various circumstances used in referring to ionizing radiations. The most common forms of ionizing radiation are X-rays and gamma rays (Gale and Lax 123). However, radiation might also be used in referring to non-ionizing radiations such as microwaves, radio waves, heat, or visible light. During radiation, wave radiate or particles travel away from the source in every direction. This characteristic enables a t echnique of physical units and measurements applicable in both ionizing and non-ionizing radiations (Pettigrew 98). Both forms of radiation’s power trail an inverse-square law that relates to its source’s distance. This is because of the fact that both types of radiation tend to expand as they travel through space. This law only applies when the radiation is travelling in a vacuum. Radiation with the required high energy has the capability of knocking electrons off atoms thus creating ions. As much as both types of radiations can be dangerous to living organisms, ionizing radiation is by far more dangerous per unit of energy deposited. This is because even the powers from law ionizing radiations have the capability of causing DNA damage in living things. Because the cells of living things and DNA in the cell can be negatively affected by the ionization, then this type of radiation can easily lead to higher chances of getting cancer. Given that a single living cell cons ists of billions of atoms, only a small fraction of the atoms will be affected by radiation with low powers (Gale and Lax 187). Therefore, the possibility of cancer being caused by ionizing radiation on the amount of radiation that has been absorbed and the sensitivity of the tissue or organism. Particles and photons the energy of more than 10 electron volts (eV) should be referred to as ionizing. Beta particles, gamma rays, cosmic rays, X-rays, and alpha particles have enough energy that can ionize atoms. Free electrons can also be ionizing due to their ability have attraction with matter. Free electrons might occur as a result of ionization. Ionizing radiations originate from X-ray tubes, radioactive materials, particle accelerators, and some also naturally exist in the environment. Ionizing radiation is usually invisible and cannot be easily detected by any of the other four human senses. This is the reason as to why the equipment like Geiger counters are always needed to detect the presence of ionizing radiations. Ionizing radiation can be might lead to the production of some visible light when they interact with matter, as experienced during radio-luminescence and Cherenkov radiation ionizing radiation can be used in many ways in the field of medicine but can be a health hazard if not used in an appropriate way (Kudriashov 145). Exposing someone to ionizing radiation can result to the damage of his/ her living tissues. Higher doses of exposure to

Critical analysis of research Evidence Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critical analysis of Evidence - Research Paper Example Five research articles were used in order to make a good analysis and conclusion for this particular problem. Each article is likewise critiqued as to its validity and reliability as a research study. Summary: The aim of this study was to find out whether an implementation of a clinical practice guideline would be effective in reducing the development of ventilator-associated pneumonia or VAP (Abbott et al., 2006). The nursing clinical practice guidelines focused on five tasks including the set up of the hospital bed, physical sanitation, and the use of hand protection. The same practice guidelines were actually the result of a collaboration of an educational group who arrived at the instruction which was spread to the hospital personnel. The results of the study revealed that the incidence of VAP in patients had decreased but statistical analysis indicated the change was not significant. Even then, this study encouraged the integration of clinical practices that have been proven through research to reduce VAP cases. Research Question: This particular research focused on four questions (Abbott et al., 2006). The first one pertained to the effect of incorporating the clinical instruction into practice to the number of VAP cases. The second one highlighted the number of VAP cases before and after the integration. The third question delved on the correlation between the implementation of the guideline and the number of VAP cases. The last question intended to look at barriers and guides in the smooth implementation of the guideline. Supporting Literature: There were numerous studies by which this research paper was built upon. One of the most important assumptions are based on the principle that the manner by which a health professional renders service will also affect the way he will integrate the clinical guidelines in his practice (Rogers as cited in Abbott et al.,

Paper-Based Versus Electronic Medical Record Keeping Essay Example for Free

Paper-Based Versus Electronic Medical Record Keeping Essay For many years, physicians’ offices documented all data in paper-based medical charts. Now, the physician or clinician records the medical data into a computer. Information stored in this manner is known as an electronic-based medical record or EMR. By definition, an EMR is a computerized record of the important health information regarding a patient including the care of that individual and the progress of that patient’s condition (Bonewit-West, Hunt, Applegate, 2009). The use of computers in physicians’ offices is not new. For decades, physicians have used computers and practice management software primarily to schedule appointments and for billing. The government has offered physicians incentives designed to encourage the adoption of electronic medical records to promote medical information accessibility, better patient care, greater efficiency, and financial savings (Hamilton, 2010). In the face of advancing technology, small medical offices must compare the cost, ease of use, and maintenance of electronic medical record systems versus paper-based record keeping. The cost of keeping paper-based and electronic medical records is not just about the actual price tag of the record-keeping systems. The cost of keeping an electronic medical record system (EMR) begins with the initial purchase and implementation of the hardware and EMR software. There are also ongoing maintenance expenses, loss of revenue associated with temporary loss of productivity due to converting paper charts to electronic ones, and the training of the staff (Menachemi Collum, 2011). The way these record systems are stored is very different and can greatly affect the cost as well. EMR records are stored on a server, digitally, in a secure computer database within the office practice (Hamilton, 2010). On the other hand, the cost of keeping a paper-based medical record requires certain supplies. File folders, folder labels, chart dividers, paper, and writing instruments are needed. Shelves are commonly used to hold and organize the charts for ease of accessibility by the staff. A growing medical practice may often require many shelving units that take up valuable office space. Storage boxes are required to store outdated charts or charts no longer in use (Bonewit-West et al., 2009). If there is not enough space in the office, then physicians may often have to pay for off-site storage (Hamilton, 2010).  The process of using a paper-based medical record system is relatively easy. However, there are some factors to consider. To use a paper chart, the medical staff must locate and retrieve it, make sure the appropriate documents accompany the chart, and have it ready for the physician. The physician or the medical staff must allocate enough time to accurately document the chart for each patient. Any chart, whether it is paper or electronic, needs to be comprehensible, so clear writing is imperative when recording using a paper chart (Bonewit-West et al., 2009). Meanwhile, using an EMR system requires the use of a computer. This can be a desktop model, laptop, or a tablet type device. The patient records are kept digitally within the EMR system and are accessed via the computer. This type of record-keeping system does not require the addition of paper documents. Al l paper documents are scanned into the EMR system or electronically obtained from other pertinent sources. Once paper documents are scanned into the EMR system, they become part of the patient’s permanent record and are no longer needed. This process requires EMR training of the medical staff, which is normally performed by the vendor supplying the EMR software. The physician and the medical staff must learn how to operate the new system and acclimate to the new paperless charting method. Learning an EMR program and using it with ease can take several months or more (Bonewit-West et al., 2009). The ease of use with both of these systems differs in the fact that paper-based records need to be filed properly in order to locate them when needed. Filing can be very time-consuming and paper-based records can be easily lost or destroyed. Even though electronic records are stored digitally on a server within the medical office, the medical staff will still need to enter the patient data into the EMR system. Electronic records need to be backed up daily because they can be lost due to fail ure of the hardware (Hamilton, 2010). Regular maintenance is required for both paper-based and electronic record keeping. The maintenance differs greatly between the systems and is ongoing regardless of which system is being used in the medical office. The routine maintenance of an electronic medical record system requires hiring network professionals to monitor and maintain the network. Some examples of maintenance tasks may include performing data backup once every twenty-four hours, storing a database backup offsite, and  archiving backup media once every month. There is also maintenance on the hardware and software. Hardware must be replaced and software will have to be upgraded regularly. A product specialist may need to run utilities for different applications within the EMR system. There will be ongoing training for all users of the electronic medical records system (Menachemi Collum, 2011). In contrast to electronic medical records, maintenance of paper charts require that they are examined periodically to make sure the chart remains in good condition since these charts will become worn over time. The charting of each patient should be complete, legible, and performed in a timely fashion. Paper charts that are outdated, that are deemed inactive or charts of patients who expired will have to be placed in boxes and put into storage (Hamilton, 2010). There are vast differences between paper-based and electronic medical record-keeping systems. One system is entirely manual while the other requires manual data entry combined with computerization. For decades, physicians and staff of medical practices have used only the manual or paper-based method of keeping medical records. Change can be costly and frustrating, but with the advancement of technology, coupled with the government requiring the use of EMR, small medical offices must explore the cost, ease of use, and maintenance involved in making this important change in the way of keeping medical records. References Bonewit-West, K., Hunt, S. A., Applegate, E. J. (2009). The medical record. In Todays Medical Assistant: Clinical Administrative Procedures. St. Louis, Mo: Saunders/Elsevier. Hamilton, B. (2010). Electronic health records (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Menachemi, N., Collum, T. (2011). Benefits and drawbacks of EHRs. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 4, 47-55. Retrieved from doi:10.2147/RMHP.S12985.

Definition And The Pros And Cons Of Globalization Management Essay

Definition And The Pros And Cons Of Globalization Management Essay Globalisation describes the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through a global network of political ideas through communication, transportation, trade and the rapid increase in the share of economic activity taking place across national boundaries. The term is most closely associated with the term economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, the spread of technology, and military presence. The term can also refer to the transnational circulation of ideas, languages, or popular culture through acculturation- cultural exchange. Singapore has evolved today as one of the flourishing nations of the world and it is regarded to be a global business nation as it is the home to about 7,000 multi- national companies. Singapores strategic location in South East Asia and infrastructure arrested the attention and encouraged many industrial companies and foreign investors to set-up businesses in Singapore, which started Singapores journey of globalisation. Singapore is a corruption free nation with high international standard machinery, well trained workers, a good world culture and an environment aptly suited for trading or business purpose. Singapore, despite once being an island country, has managed to progress rapidly. In the last ten years of the twentieth-century, Singapore has transformed into a recognisable global city through the process of nation-state building. This led to an increase in the migration of people at all levels of the economy which enabled Singapore to sustain a competitive economy. Although Singapores economy managed to prosper, its people were weighed down with numerous issues like structural unemployment and the increasing income inequality. Hence, the Singapore government came up with ways of maintaining and managing a sustainable economic growth in response to the issues. Social Effects of Globalisation in Singapore The phenomenon of Globalization is comparable to a double-edged sword. In society, globalization has the power to aggravate or alleviate existing social issues. Globalisation in Singapore has caused a lot of social problems. There is an increase in gamblers and the setting up of the two casinos in the past year has caused an increase in the number of problem gamblers. There is also an increase lost of national identity in youths as they are introduced to the outside world and start to move out of the country. It has also affected Singapores culture as foreigners bring in different cultures and people in Singapore, especially the youth have become more inclined towards the Western culture and may not appreciate the Asian culture as much anymore. As more people immigrate to other countries, there will be fewer Singaporeans to defend the country. When more foreigners immigrate to Singapore, it will further worsen the problem of ageing population in Singapore as well. Globalisation has also caused an increased gap in the income of the well off and not so well off people. However, globalisation has also helped Singapore in many other different ways. Globalisation encourages Singaporeans to increase their knowledge and upgrade their skills to keep up with the ever changing world and the advancements of technology. The casinos have also improved Singapores economy as it attracts a lot of tourists. Foreigners bring in talents that can also improve the standard of the workforce in Singapore. Therefore, globalisation can bring both positive and negative effects to the society in Singapore. Foreign Workforce in Singapore Foreign workforce in Singapore refers to the non-cititzen workforce in Singapore. As Singapore globalizes, more and more foreigners are coming into Singapore as there is a need for foreign workforce in Singapore so as to sustain the economy of Singapore and also for the benefits of improving our workforce as Singapore globalizes and becomes a global trading hub, there is a need to improve and sustain our workforce by having a foreign workforce. Foreign workforce in Singapore is divided into two parts: the skilled workforce and the unskilled labour. Unskilled labour refers to unskilled workers who mainly work in the manufacturing, construction, and domestic services sectors. The majority of them come from countries such as India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand, as part of bilateral agreements between Singapore and these countries. Skilled workforce refers to foreigners with professional qualifications or acceptable degrees working at the higher end of Singapores economy (Yeoh, 2007). According to statistics from the Financial Times in 2010, it states that the foreign workforce make up about 34% of Singapores population, thus, proving that Singapore has a big foreign workforce. Skilled workers and professionals accounted for 13.4% of Singapores total foreign workforce, while unskilled labourers accounted for 86.6% of Singapores total foreign workforce. Research Methodology We did our research using the internet, newspapers and several books that were found in the reference section of the National Library. We did our research and found information from online journal articles and forums through the web. We also found information from other sources like magazine reports as well. Analysis of Research Skilled Foreign Talent Workforce Foreign talents in Singapore come to Singapore with their knowledge from their country and take up jobs that require special training for its satisfactory performance.   They usually have high qualifications and expertise in their job field. Their monthly income has already a minimum threshold of S$2500. Engineers, accountants, scientists and people from the research and development fields are examples of the skilled workforce foreign talents make up in Singapore. They mainly come from more developed countries like China, Hong Kong, Macau, South Korea and Taiwan. Specialized occupations that include neurosurgeons and doctors make up for the job expertise Singaporeans lack. Unskilled Labour Workforce Immigrants from countries like Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, Philippines and Pakistan come to Singapore and fill up lowly skilled jobs that require practically no training or experience for its adequate performance. Singaporeans are unwilling to take up these lowly skilled jobs as they do not sound attractive, have low wages, long working hours and require large amounts of manual work. Such jobs include manufacturing, shipyard and shipbuilding, construction and services, as well as in private households as live in domestic workers. Foreigners constitute 45% of the manufacturing workforce, and 61% of the construction workforce. Unskilled labourers with recognized skills and qualifications earned about S$1800 monthly. Unskilled workers make up the majority of Singapores foreign workforce. Comparison between Skilled and Unskilled Workforce 1. Safety Skilled Skilled immigrants are highly valued as they are important for the countrys growth. They are treated with great respect and are taken care of when they come to Singapore. However, be it skilled or unskilled labor in Singapore, everyone is taken care of properly and the government keeps the place as safe as possible, keeping the crime rate as low as possible. The government maintains a stable and peaceful society and cares for the peoples safety, be it locals, skilled or unskilled immigrants. Unskilled Majority of the unskilled workforce in Singapore is not invited by the Singaporean government to work in Singapore. Rather, they come to Singapore on their own in search of jobs to support their families back in their homelands. Upon arriving in Singapore, they usually acquire jobs that do not require much skills or knowledge. Since these foreign workers do not specialize in any key areas, they hold less importance to Singapores economic growth, hence they are not as protected by the government as compared to the skilled workforce in Singapore. The population of unskilled workforce in Singapore, though, still lead generally safe lives in Singapore as a whole. Although there are still various risks involved in the type of work that these unskilled foreign workers do like construction works. Therefore, they are not as protected by the Singaporean government as the skilled foreign talents are. 2. Housing Skilled Skilled immigrants are given privileges unskilled immigrants do not have. Skilled immigrants with university degrees, professional enough to hold high ranks in the company, high qualifications, are able to bring in their family into the country as long as their family members are eligible for a dependant pass and they do not have to pay levies (Yeoh, 2007). The government also has policies for such foreigners to gain citizenship more easily as well. Unskilled In terms of housing, the unskilled workforce in Singapore do not get to live in comfortable houses, as do the skilled workforce in Singapore. In most cases, these unskilled foreign workers live in simple rooms, with not much in them. There is no need for luxurious accommodations, as most of them only stay for a short period of time to work in Singapore, and do not stay in Singapore permanently. However, in some extreme cases, a number of these unskilled foreign workers are crammed into a small apartment with poor living conditions. These workers have much to put up with in terms of their living conditions; hence not all of these workers get to live comfortably. Therefore, as compared to the population of skilled foreign workforce in Singapore, the population of unskilled foreign workforce does not live as comfortably, instead, they are subjected to worse living conditions. 3. Types of Jobs Skilled Foreign talents in Singapore possess professional skills in their respective fields. Due to Singapores limited resources and low birth rates, there is a need for foreign talents to help the country keep up with the economy growth and its hopes for reaching out to the global economy. They fill up jobs that require skills which locals lack. With the lack of skills, Singapore will not be able develop and improve, which explains the need for foreign talent in Singapores society. In 2006, close to 13.4% of foreign workers are skilled. They take up high ranking jobs in marine industries, research and development, manufacturing and many more which require specific skills or knowledge. Unskilled The unskilled or semi-skilled foreign workforce in Singapore usually takes up jobs such as construction workers, maids, garbage men. This is because these jobs do not require prior or extra knowledge to complete, and these workers can be easily taught to do these jobs. 4. Healthcare Skilled Healthcare in Singapore is generally well taken care of, be it for the skilled or unskilled workforce. Germs are able to spread and it would not be pleasant when diseases are spread around the country. Healthcare services are easily available in Singapore. However, there are no healthcare subsidies for foreign immigrants. This is due to the fact that the government wants to influence the locals to support and encourage the immigration policy. Unskilled In general, foreign workers that fall under the category of being unskilled or semi-skilled have health checks conducted by the Singaporean government every now and then, to ensure that these workers are not carrying any dangerous diseases that could potentially spread to other Singaporeans and cause a pandemic (Yeoh, 2007). By ensuring that these foreign workers are relatively healthy, the Singaporean government is also keeping Singaporeans safe, hence the state of health of the unskilled or semi-skilled workforce in Singapore is important to the government. 5. Country of Origin Skilled Foreign talents in Singapore come from countries like United States of America, Britain, France, Japan, South Korea and Australia (Yeoh, 2007). Skilled foreigners can come to Singapore for various reasons. They come to Singapore and treat her as a stepping stone to advance towards better developing and more successful companies in other countries like the United States of America. However, there are also some skilled immigrants who come to Singapore because of the better living conditions. They are able to bring their family members to Singapore, where there is good education and healthcare. They are not as valued in their country as compared to in Singapore due to the fact that there are people who are better than them, so they come to Singapore to advance, where they will be valued greatly for their knowledge and skills. Unskilled Unskilled or semi-skilled foreign workers in Singapore usually come from countries such as China, Bangladesh, India, Philippines, and Indonesia. This is because the cost of labour from these countries is cheap, as compared to the cost of hiring skilled foreign talent. These workers are willing to work irregular hours under tough conditions to provide for their families back in their homelands. Workers that come from Bangladesh and India work as construction workers most of the time, and workers that come from Philippines and Indonesia work as maids most of the time. 6. Salaries Skilled Skilled immigrants in Singapore monthly salary starts from about $2500 and can be more than $7000 (Yeoh, 2007). This is because they have valuable skills that are able to help companies in gaining profits. They have professional skills locals do not have and hence, they are able to be successful when they come to Singapore. Unskilled In comparison with the population of skilled foreign workforce in Singapore, the population of unskilled foreign workforce in Singapore has generally lower salaries, usually below $2500 (Yeoh, 2007). This is because these foreign workers do not bring to Singapore new skills or new knowledge that can help Singapore to grow economically, hence their labour is not as valuable as the skills and knowledge that foreign talents bring to Singapore. Also, these workers receive low pay because they are willing to accept these low pays, hence their pays often do not increase. Therefore, unskilled foreign workers have lower salaries than skilled foreign talents. Advantages and Disadvantages of Foreign Workforce in Singapore: Advantages of the Foreign Workforce in Singapore: The foreign workforce is vital for Singapores economic growth and development. The foreign workforce in Singapore is divided into two segments, foreign talent and foreign workers. The Singaporean government has always stressed the importance of immigrant workers to Singapores economy and development. With the presence of the foreign workforce in Singapore, there is exposure to external influences like cultural exchange. It is a unique feature of Singapore, and allows local Singaporeans to interact with the foreigners that come into Singapore from different parts of the world, with different backgrounds and cultures. This hence allows local Singaporeans to understand these foreigners more, which leads to an understanding of different cultures and backgrounds. With better relations between both sides, this will lead to more opportunities for business deals between foreigners and Singaporeans, as there will be respect of each sides cultures and differences, hence leading to Singapores economic growth and development. The interaction between the locals and foreigners also helps increase the awareness of locals of the different cultures. This allows the locals to practice racial tolerance in their daily lives which promotes racial harmony is Singapores multi-racial society. Singapore aims to be a vibrant multi-cultural global trading hub working with people from a diversity of cultures and backgrounds. This factor will attract more foreigners to set up companies and businesses and invest in Singapore, which will provide more job opportunities for local Singaporeans. Singapores main resource has always been its people. However, as Singapore has a low birth rate and Singapores main resource of people has been depleting in the recent years, there is a need for more highly-skilled foreign workers to fill up the highly-skilled jobs. This will also help develop Singapore into the talent capital of the global economy. Advantages of the Skilled Workforce in Singapore The skilled workforce in Singapore, also known as foreign talents, refers to highly-skilled foreigners with professional qualifications or acceptable degrees working at the higher end of Singapores economy. With so many foreign talents coming in to take up highly-skilled jobs with high wages, this is a source of competition for locals. Many locals feel that these foreign talents, who are more successful in their jobs, are snatching their jobs and source of income from them. With the highly-skilled foreign talents, there will hence be less job opportunities for local Singaporeans. Based on research conducted by the Nanyang Technological University (NTU), three out of four jobs in the past five years went to foreigners. This will motivate local Singaporeans to perform better in their jobs, and pushes them to seek self-improvement, to match up to the standards of the highly-skilled foreign talents. This is caused by the sense of competition for jobs between them and the foreign talents, making them want to put in more hard work, so that their jobs will be secured. Local Singaporeans feel challenged by these highly-skilled workers, and this will lead to improvement and higher efficiency of jobs as they will strive harder to do better than the foreigners, thus leading to an improvement in Singapores economic growth and development too. With Singapores economy prospering and growing, this will in turn attract more foreign branches and companies to invest in Singapore, as Singapore has a growing position as a regional and local global trading hub. Therefore, foreign talents, also known as the highly skilled workers, will lead to Singapores economic growth and development, as it actually pushes local Singaporeans to seek self-improvement. With more of these foreign talents coming to Singapore and taking up highly-skilled jobs, it helps in Singapores economic growth and development. Given Singapores aspirations to become a major player in a globalized world, Singapores main economic strategy is based on being home to a highly-skilled workforce, which will be consisted of the highly-educated local Singaporeans, together with the foreign talents in Singapore. Therefore, the highly-skilled foreign workforce is vital to Singapore for economic growth and development. The presence of foreign talents will lead to Singapores economic growth and development, as they bring new expertise and knowledge to Singapore, and help increase the productivity and efficiency of local Singaporeans by providing such new knowledge. This leads to Singaporeans learning and developing new skills, so that Singapore can improve and become more competitive in the global market, hence resulting in Singapores economic growth and development. Advantages of the Unskilled Workforce in Singapore The unskilled workforce in Singapore, also known as foreign workers, refer to semi-skilled or unskilled workers who mainly work in the manufacturing, construction, and domestic services sectors. In Singapore, foreign workers are needed to take up jobs that local Singaporeans refuse to take up, due to the fact that these jobs are low-skilled jobs with low wages and irregular working hours, for example, construction workers, toilet cleaners and road sweepers. However, these jobs are required to maintain Singapore in its clean and orderly state, and to ensure that Singapore will continue to prosper, grow and develop. Therefore, it is important that there are people to fill up such job positions. As locals refuse to take up these jobs, foreign workers are needed to take them up. Only if Singapore is in its clean and orderly state, and has new buildings and developments, with a strong workforce, it can be seen as a potential market to invest in, and attract foreign companies to set up businesses in Singapore. Furthermore, if foreign workers are available in handful here, more companies will be inclined to set up their factory bases in Singapore, as they can hire these foreign workers to work for them, with lower wages and longer working hours. This hence leads to Singapores economic growth. Therefore, the foreign workforce is vital for Singapores economic growth and development. Disadvantages of the Foreign Workforce in Singapore A large majority of Singaporeans feel that foreigners are putting up stiff competition for jobs in Singapore, hence threatening the livelihoods of Singaporeans. Local Singaporeans feel that the foreign workforce in Singapore is snatching away jobs and their source of income from them. Based on research conducted by the Nanyang Technological University (NTU), three out of four jobs in the past five years were taken up by the foreign workforce. With an increasing number of jobs being taken up by the foreign workforce in Singapore, the unemployed, especially sole breadwinners, will be unable to support their families, leading to more families being in a state of poverty without jobs. This leads to Singaporeans becoming increasingly worried and concerned over the issue of the foreign workforce taking over the available high-skilled jobs in Singapore, leaving them with only low-skilled jobs. Additionally, due to a lack of social integration between local Singaporeans and foreigners, this will lead to discrimination of the foreign workforce by locals, with increasing dislikes between the two parties. Many Singaporeans already have preconceptions of foreign workers, as they do not have enough interaction and understanding of the foreign workers in Singapore, which stems from a lack of social integration, which might lead to future conflict. A lack of social integration leads to negative generalisations made towards foreign workers, without a clear understanding of them. Such negative generalisations will lead to the debate between Singaporeans over the issue of the need of foreign workers in Singapore, as they bring in both advantages and disadvantages to Singapore, and such debates will make foreign workers unhappy too. It might cause tension between parties if such negative generalisations are continuously believed in, and this might lead to future conflicts as well. Disadvantages of the Skilled Workforce in Singapore With the skilled workforce, also known as foreign talents, in Singapore, local Singaporeans feel threatened that their source of livelihood is being taken away by people who are not even Singaporeans. This causes Singaporeans to have less jobs to choose from, leading to Singaporeans discontent towards the foreign highly skilled workers. This in turn causes a lack of social integration between the foreigners and local Singaporeans, and they will not be able to bond together as one Singapore. Hence, both parties will be unhappy with each other and the foreigners will not be able to integrate into Singapores society despite working in Singapore for many years. This might lead to future conflict and disagreement with Singaporeans about the influx of the foreign workforce in Singapore. Therefore, foreign workforce will lead to disadvantages in Singapore too. Locals views towards foreign workforce Now, in Singapore, 34% of Singapores 4 million strong population are actually foreigners. Despite having been around in Singapore for decades, working hard to earn a living for their families back home, some locals are uncomfortable with them, some are prejudiced against them, while some have nothing against them. However, despite some local Singaporeans not approving of having foreign workforce in Singapore, and being prejudiced against the foreign workforce in Singapore, and not treating foreign workforce as equals, there are still people who approve of it and think that the foreign workforce is essential and vital to Singapore as be it skilled or unskilled, they contribute to Singapore economically and socially. Singaporeans are aware of the increase of foreign workforce in Singapore. There are both positive and negative views of these foreigners. Singaporeans are aware that they are able to learn a lot of news things culturally as they communicate with these foreigners. This enables them to learn things they otherwise would not have learnt and lets them learn new things while working which will promote racial harmony in Singapore as the people become more culturally sensitive towards one another. Singaporeans are also aware that foreign workers help create jobs for them as they come to Singapore with international companies which will be able to create more job opportunities for locals. Foreign workers also come up with more effective methods of working so productivity can be increased. This will help Singapore to not only advance, but also to advance even faster and keep up with the rest of this ever changing world. This enables the Singapore companies to learn from them and get valuable information from their expertise, thus being able to help Singapore to press forward and change when there is a need to. In some cases, having a skilled workforce also helps the locals to work better. This is because everyone has a natural tendency to want to do better than others, therefore, the presence of foreigners will spur the Singaporeans to want to work better than their foreign counterparts and so improving the productivity of that company and Singapore as a whole. Singaporeans are also glad that there are unskilled foreign workers to help to fill up jobs which are avoided by many Singaporeans, especially the youths, as they are picky about jobs and if the job does not provide an income they perceive as acceptable, then they will not take up the job. These jobs mostly do not require any prior training, and as such, have low salaries and odd working hours, resulting in these jobs being shunned by those finding a job and in the end, these jobs are left to the unskilled foreign workers to take up. However, there is still disapproval of having foreigners in Singapore. Some Singaporeans are also unhappy about foreign workforce in Singapore as they see them as competition for jobs. They lose their jobs when they are not competent enough and when the company values foreign talent. When a certain industry consists of mostly foreign workers, locals also feel discouraged from taking up jobs in the sector as they are afraid of being the minority. They also start to think that foreign talents are full of themselves. However, even then, lowly-educated locals are unhappy as foreigners also take away their jobs and more uneducated locals become unemployed. Locals also start to worry that they soon have to also compete with the foreigners for jobs, housing, medical care and other needs. They see the increase in foreign immigrants and the reason for increasing property prices. To make things worse, foreigners are getting similar benefits as locals as well. Having unskilled foreign workers commonly in a certain neighborhood may also cause people who stay in that area to feel uncomfortable and insecure as there is the common perception that these foreign workers may be a criminal or may turn into one. This has caused many Singaporeans to feel unhappy when there is a dormitory for foreign workers set up in their area as they find them a nuisance as they hang around the residential areas. Gradually, it has caused some people being prejudiced and discriminating against the foreign workforce in Singapore. Foreign workforces views on locals Foreign immigrants come to Singapore in search for better jobs and living conditions. However, some are welcomed while some are not treated well. Singaporeans have stereotypes for foreigners and they are prejudices against foreigners as most locals see them as bringing more problems into Singapore. As a result, social integration of these foreigners into Singapore has not been very good and the foreign workforce here in Singapore do not have the chance to integrate into Singapores society and mix around due to these views that Singaporeans have of them. They have difficulty integrating into the society due to the language barrier, the difference in culture and lifestyles. Despite their efforts to integrate, they face cold and unfair treatment by Singaporeans. Despite all of this, they have to cope with surviving in a new foreign place and their work. However, despite all of that, there are still people in Singapore who approve and think that the influx of foreign workforce into Singapore is essential and important for Singapores survival and economic growth if Singapore wants to become a regional and global trading hub. The unskilled labour will also take up the jobs that Singaporeans dont want but are vital to keep Singapore in its clean and orderly state. Only with these jobs done will Singapore be progressing and maintaining its orderly state and this will all contribute to Singapores economic growth.   Thus, some Singaporeans welcome foreigners and treat them nicely. Therefore, there are mixed views towards the foreign workforce in Singapore. Conclusion The many opportunities and resources being easily available has always been a strong advantage of globalization. However, the rapid speed at which globalization is occurring and its unintended consequences have proven to be detrimental to society to a certain extent and caused problems which requires government intervention to be resolved. In Singapore, Globalisation has resulted in issues like the significant influx of a huge number of foreign workforces in Singapore, which has both advantages and disadvantages towards Singapore. It is also evident that Singaporeans have discerning views towards this issue. Some feel they aid our economy nut others think they introduce competition and cause social problems. Globalisation aids in building up a competitive and knowledgeable population. However, its dire consequences bring about a host of problems which, if spirals out of control, can outweigh this. The pressure is hence on the Singaporean government to strike a fine balance between achieving the full advantages of globalization and countering the unavoidable side-effects. Limitations of Research Not all sources are reliable and accurate and while we were doing our research, there were many biased reports found on the foreign

Antisense Technology and Its Applications

Antisense Technology and Its Applications ANTISENSE TECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION INTRODUCTION: The tool that is used for the inhibition of gene expression is called Antisense technology. The antisense nucleic acid sequence base pairs with its complementary sense RNA strands and thus prevents it from being translated into a protein. The complementary nucleic acid sequence can be either a synthetic oligonucleotide, like oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODN) having less than 30 mucleotides or longer antisense RNA (aRNA) sequences (Sczakiel, 1997). Example of sense and antisense RNA is: 5’ A C G U 3’ mRNA, and 3’ U G C A 5’ Antisense RNA. Dr. Hal Weintraub first developed this technology at Basic Science Division. Firstly, they showed that aRNA inhibits the gene expression in mouse cells by Berg, 2002. Dr. Meng-Chao Yao in 1996 showed that aRNA that was incorporated into non-conserved regions of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) disrupts translation and this was done by altering interaction of the mRNA, and the rRNA, mRNA chimera. Sequence transcription of antisense DNA strand into the sense mRNA strand, which is then translated into polypeptide (Kimball, Nov 2002). The inhibition in which the theory works are as follows: When the RNA binds to the complementary mRNA, it forms a double stranded RNA (ds RNA) complex which is similar to double stranded DNA . The dsRNA complex do not allow translation to occur. This translation process was not known. Several theories include: dsRNA prevents ribosome from binding to the sense RNA and translating. dsRNA cannot be translated from nucleus to cytosol, where the translation occurs. dsRNA is susceptible to endoribonucleases that does not affect single stranded RNA, but degrade the dsRNA. ANTISENSE OLIGONUCLEOTIDES: Oligonucleotide-based antisense techniques represents the most successful approach to genetic message element. Zamecnik and Stephenson first demonstrated the antisense effect of synthetic nucleotide. Zamecnik and Stephenson identified a repeated sequence of 21 nucleotides (nt) that was crucial to viral integration with the help of nucleotide sequences from the 5’ and 3’ ends of the 35S RNA of Rous sarcoma virus (RSV). They synthesized a 13-mer oligonucleotide, d(AATGGTAAAATGG), complement to the portion of this viral sequence. Viral production got inhibited when synthetic oligonucleotide was introduced into cultured fibroblast cells.Thus, they concluded that oligonucleotide was inhibiting viral integration by hybridizing to the crucial sequences and blocking them. They introduced the term ‘hybridon’ to describe such oligonucleotides. At the same time, Tennant et al and Miller et al reported similar effects for synthetic oligonucleotides in other systems. These results focused on the ability of synthetic oligonucleotides to interfere with gene processes. Synthetic oligonucleotides are foreign to the cells into which they are introduced and thus becomes prey for endogenous nucleases. Synthetic oligonucleotides were protected from endogenous nuclease when they attained the persistence level in cell. There are three possible sites on a nucleotide where protective modifications could be introduced. The three possible sites are Base, Ribose (2’ OH group) and the Phosphate backbone. In RNA nucleotides the 2’ hydroxyl group, missing in DNA nucleotides, can be modified. The alteration was thus introduced in the protective modifications of nucleotides that protects against the nuclease degradation which does not at the same time eliminates the desired effect of the oligonucleotide sequence by blocking the complementary hybridization or harming of the cells. In the late 1960s, Eckstein and colleagues successfully introduced the first-generation antisense-motivated nucleotide modification. They replaced one of the non-bridging oxygen atoms in the phosphate backbone with a sulfur atom. This modification was called as phosphhorothioate that achieved the goal of nuclease resistance measured by an increased half-life for a phosphorothioated oligonucleotide upto ten hours in human serum as compared to that of one hour of an unmodified oligonucleotide having the same sequence. Moreover, Matsukura and colleagues demonstrated that phosphorothioated oligonucleotides were effective hybridons against the HIV replication in the cultured cells. On the other hand, phophorothioated oligonucleotides displayed slightly reduced hybridization kinetics and a tendency towards unspecific binding with certain proteins which resulted in cytotoxicity at high concentrations. Thus, the dose-response was added to the mix of issues for antisense agents and hence the useful modifications continued. The so called second-generation class of modifications directly addressed the non-specific and cytotoxic issues which was raised by the phosporothioates by the introduction of RNA oligonucleotides with alkyl modifications at the 2’ position of the ribose sugar. The two most important of these modifications are 2’-O-methyl and 2’-O-methoxy-ethyl RNAs. Antisense nucleotides contains these modifications and displayed the nuclease resistance in concert with lower toxicity and major drawback of 2’-O-alkyl modifications is that the antisense agents containing them are unavailable to the most powerful antisense mechanism called RNase H cleavage. Steric block mechanism are affected from these agents. Thus, the 2’-O-methyl oligonucleotides have been used to increase the desired expression of alternate splices in certain proteins by suppressing the undesired splice variant. Since RNase H cleavage is the most desirable mechanism for antisense effect. Nuclear resistance rarely have 2’-O-alkyl modifications which is a hybrid oligonucleotide, constructs incorporating both the characteristics has been appeared in the form of the â€Å"gapmer† antisense oligonucleotide, containing central deoxynucleotide blocks sufficient to induce RNase H cleavage which was flanked by the blocks of 2’-O-methyl modified ribonucleotides, thus protecting the internal blocks from nuclease degradation and these irrelevant cleavage appears because of binding short stretched nucleotide in most of the genomes. For example, a 15-mer can be viewed as a series of eight overlapping 8-mers. mRNA has less potential random targets, while in RNase H cleavage it is still high. This theoretical potential became real in the case of 20-mer phophorothioate oligonucleotide targeted to the 3’-untranslated region (UTR) of the protein kinase C alpha gene (PKCÃŽ ±). While unmodified oligo-deoxynucleotides forms desired DNA:DNA and DNA:RNA duplexes. A variety of nucleic acid analogs have been developed by that increased the thermal stabilities when hybridized with the complementary DNAs or RNAs as compared to unmodified DNA:DNA and DNA:RNA duplexes. These are third generation antisense oligonucleotide modifications and the analogs are: peptide nucleic acids, 2’-fluro N3-P5’-phosphoramadites, 1’, 5’-anhydrohexitol nucleic acids, and locked nucleic acids. The newest and most promising third generation modification is the locked nucleic acid (LNA), introduced by Koshkin et al, Obika et al and Singh et al. LNA, is thus composed of locked nucleotides into a single conformation through a 2’-0’, 4’-C methylene linkage in 1,2:5,6-di-O-isopropylene-ÃŽ ±-allofuranose. LNAs increased the thermodynamic stability and enhanced nucleic acid recognition. Ribozymes: Ribozymes are RNA enzymes were first described by Cech in Tetrahymena thermophilia. Antisense agents immediatley seized the RNA processing capabilities of these enzymes. Thus, the hammerhead ribozyme was characterized. This enzyme was first isolated from viroid RNA by Ulhenbeck and Haseloff and Gerlach. RNA Interference (RNAi): RNA interference (RNAi) was first described by Fire and colleagues in Caenorhabditis elegans. Long-double stranded RNAs were introduced into C. elegans. RNAi generated enormous interest by both those who view it as a potentially powerful antisense tool and recognize it like ancient eukaryotic cellular defense mechanism. ANTISENSE MECHANISM: The overall goal in introducing an antisense agent into the cells either in vitro or in vivo is to suppress or completely block the production of the gene product. The normal transcription and translation is affected due to transition between DNA and amino acid sequence. DNA strand is transcribed into pre-mRNA at step one. In step two, through the action of 3 separate processes like 5’ capping, intron excision and polyadnelyation, pre-mRNA is converted into mature mRNA. In step three, transportation of mRNA is carried out in ribosomes into the appropriate poly-peptide. The first target is transcription step to achieve antisense knock-down or knock-out, in which antisense agent is targeted to DNA itself, thus preventing transcription of the primary message. Dagle and Weeks noted that there are three ways in which this strategy can be carried out viz, minor groove binding polyamides, strand displaying PNAs, and major groove binding , triplex forming oligonucleotides. According to White at al, pyrrole-imidazole are minor groove binding polymers that achieve sequence-specific action through side-by-side pairing of pyrrole and imidazole amino acids. Less than 7bp appears in the target sequence of short stretched DNA. While PNA agents are longer and their mode of operation binds to complementary strand of DNA helix, displacing the complement. This process is thus aided by the fact that PNA:DNA duplexes are more stable than the DNA:DNA duplexes so that former is thermodynamically favored over the latter duplex. Triplex forming oligonucleotides have longer sequences and these agents create stable triplex DNA instead of binding to one of the DNA helix, while displacing the other helix of DNA. Both involves the interaction of TFO having purine bases in a polypurine:polyrimidine stretch of duplex DNA. Watson-Crick bonded is the target dsDNA sequence and triplex forming oligonucleotides binds to duplex through Hoogsteen hydrogen binding: T-A:T and C-G:C triplets. This strategy necessitates that only the purine-pyrimidine dsDNA can be targeted and the cytosine in TFO must be protonated. Thus the cytosine protonation is due to the requirement for the acidic conditions. Sorensen et al reported that the LNA containing TFOs stabilizes the triplex formation at physiologic pH. A 15-mer having seven LNAs raised the temperature for the triplex to duplex transformation from 33 °C to ~66 °C at pH 6.8. The next level of antisense attack focuses on the processing of the pre-mRNA and the intron excision mechanism. In this process, the oligonucleotide-based agent is used. The sequence-specific binding of the oligonucleotide to the pre-mRNA is required to prevent intron-excision. The antisense agent is then targeted to the mature rRNA and interferes with the transcription apparatus in either due to presence of the oligonucleotide which prevents formation of the ribosomal complex. In ribosomal complex, short RNA oligonucleotides are not stable due to presence of helicase enzymes, while longer RNA oligonucleotides activates RNAi pathway. Finally the most used mechanism is that of the RNase H degradation of mRNA. RNase H is an endogenous enzyme which cleaves the RNA moiety of an RNA:DNA duplex. In both cytoplasm and nucleus, RNase H is found. During DNA replication it removes the primers of RNA from Okazaki fragments. The most powerful weapon assessing functions of gene is called RNase H activation antisense. Kurreck thus listed 15 antisense oligonucleotides in total that are used in clinical trials against the diseases like cancer and asthama. APPLICATIONS OF ANTISENSE TECHNOLOGY: In Medicine: James Watson and Francis Crick proposed deoxyribonucleic acid, which consists of two deoxyribonucleotide molecules each having 5’and 3’end that defines a polarity for the DNA strand. After binding of these strands in antiparallel orientation 3’ of one being juxtaposed to 5’end of the other, they compose a complete DNA molecule. The two stands are bound together by pairing four complementary bases in each strand such that adenine present on one strand binds to second thymine, while cytosine binds to guanine in the second. Each strand contains all the genetic information called as mirror image. This structure permits transmission of genetic information by allowing a complementary strand produce for a single strand. One strand can therefore produce an entire DNA molecule, occurring during the cell division. Each triplet set of nucleotides on a strand of DNA encodes an amino acid. In this process, one or another portion of one strand (a gene) is copied by ribonucleic acid polymerase II producing a compelementary molecule of ribonucleic acid, or RNA. This messenger RNA (mRNA) therefore, contains the same information which is contained in the gene that has been transcribed. Mature RNA molecule is left when the introns are excised. RNA molecule is thus exported to the cell, directing protein synthesis at ribosome. This takes place after intron excision and additional process. Formulation of Antisense Technology: DNA/RNA physiology is applied in various methods. Antisense technology is the most important application used. Here, oligonucleotide is introduced into cell which binds to its target mRNA through complementary based-pairing. This binding forms RNA dimer in cytoplasm and halts the protein synthesis. . Application of Antisense Technology invitro: Antisense technology is used successfully in two general areas. The first one is fundamental research where antisense oligonucleotides introduced helps to determine the role of a specific gene. Cell growth and other changes occurred due to the production of angiotensin II. Cellular renin angiotensin system played an important role in variety of cardiovascular disorders like artherosclerosis and vascular hypertrophy. Oligonucleotides were developed to inhibit the synthesis of angiotensin as it was difficult to demonstrate cellular system to be operative. It is a substrate form which the cells make angiotensin II. Cells make their own angiotensin II having growth promoting effects with the help of this technology. Therapeutic Application of Antisense Technology: Viral infections can occur when the antisense oligonucleotides are complementary to viral RNAs. Similarly, antisense oligonucleotides directed towards the oncogene product plays an important role to reduce growth of cancer cells. The most widely used application of this technology is in gene therapy. In this case, a variety of vectors are used to introduce antisense encoding genes into larger number of cells in a patient or animal to produce long term inhibition of protein. For example, vectors having angiotensin II receptor sequences when introduced in animal models can cause long term normotension in hypersensitive animals. REFERENCES: Damha, Masad. 2002 Oct 17. Making sense of Antisense. http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/mbiotech/menu/damha.htm> Accessed 2003 Feb 11. Tennant RW, Farelly JG, et al. (1973) Effects of polyadenylic acids on functions on murine RNA tumor viruses. Journal of Virology, 12: 1216-1225. Kurreck J. (2003) Antisense technologies: Improvement through novel chemical modifications. European Journal of Biochemistry, 270: 1628-1644. Miller PS, Braiterman LT, and Ts’ o POP. (1977). Effects of a trinucleotide ethyl phosphotriester, Gmp(Et)Gmp(Et)U, on mammalian cells in culture. Biochemistry, 16: 1988-1996. 1