Geographical Layout of an Area on Its Politics Essay Example for Free

Geographical Layout of an Area on Its Politics Essay What is the effect of the geographical layout of an area on its politics, society, and economy? Physical characteristics of a specific area can have a substantial impact on its history. Regardless of how close one area is to another the outcome of the civilization could be completely different because of how the people have had to adapt to live in their respective areas. This issue would explain how intertwined history is with geography. Europe’s geography provided many disadvantages and advantages which have been the factors for its many successes and failures. Since the majority of Europe is surrounded by water it was a peninsula. This made it so they could trade with ease. The many rivers and mountain ranges of Europe most certainly aided in protecting certain civilizations from invasion or being involved in wars. The wildly vast and diverse geographic features in Europe set the tone for trading routes to prosper, long-lasting cultures to develop, and battles to occur that would change the identity of the region indefinitely. A region’s geographic shape is instrumental in determining what a region will become. Due to Europe’s geographical shape it became a hotspot for any and all trade. With natural resources plentiful Europe was constantly bustling with business. The Iberian Peninsula gave Spain and Portugal easy access to trade with foreign countries. The Balkan Peninsula gave many countries along the Aegean Sea the effortless option to trade. The many Peninsulas provided great advantages for Europeans due to the plentiful food the oceans supplied. These advantages molded many European civilizations into what they are today whether they isolate themselves from others or interact. The specific geographical features within a region provided protection, but also could have provided isolation. The many rivers and mountain ranges of Europe provided many people with fertile soil and a feeling of safety. However, the mountain ranges could stop trade between countries and slow the advancement of technology and knowledge between these regions. The rivers on the other hand would encourage trade and it would flourish. The physical characteristics of a region affect the decisions people greatly. Europe has a wide variety of terrains. Some help the people who live there, while others force people to adapt. These features influenced the development of many areas. For example the Alps acted as a barrier throughout the Punic Wars. It was perhaps the Roman Empire’s greatest asset. Several times Hannibal was forced to attack by sea instead of being able to invade from the North. This is not the only time in history was affected by geographical features. Climate overcame Hitler’s forces in the Invasion of Russia. The cold winter air killed off many of Hitler’s forces. That event alone could have changed the entire turnout of WWII. Europe’s features both hindered and kindled its growth as a world power. People’s choices have always been affected by their surroundings. The geographic features found in Europe were a commodity and the reason Europe succeeded the way it did for so long. Europe is filled with a wide variety of natural resources and geographical features. Sometimes their surroundings were beneficial and other times it was detrimental. Geography affected the choices of everyone. These features are what caused certain trade routes to emerge, cultures to find their identities, and wars to take place where they did.

American Ideals Of Freedom And Liberty

American Ideals Of Freedom And Liberty In 1776, our country was founded on American ideals of freedom, liberty, and equality however, during this time in history; these principals were often bias to upper class white men. When the Declaration of Independence was first written, many Americans understood the notion of all men are created equal to truly mean that all white males were created equal. This was true with other civil rights guarantees also. The framers of our countrys Constitution were also considered to be the elite of their time. They were all white, wealthy, well educated land owners and did not adequately represent the diversity in our nation. Civil rights are defined as; a class of rights and freedoms that protect individuals from unwarranted government action and ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state without discrimination or repression. Freedoms of speech, of the press, of religion, and of fair and equal treatment are the basic civil rights granted to each of us. The Bill of Rights that was added to our Constitution outlines the basic freedoms and liberties guaranteed to every citizen of the United States of America. The Bill of Rights, in black and white is the first ten amendments to the constitution; however sadly, women and African Americans were not granted the civil rights entitled to them. Civil rights issues began at our countries founding, and continues throughout history and today. Wars in general happen as a result of people or nations defending a terrority, protecting their interests and/or trying to achieve a moral purpose. The Civil War combined all of this rational, and ended up being the single bloodiest conflict in American history. The Civil War claimed the lives of over 600,000 Americans, all on American soil; which is more than in all other American wars combined with the exception of Vietnam. The Civil War began in 1838 as a result of disputes between the northern and southern states over slavery and taxation of cotton exports. The south wanted to keep slavery and felt it was necessary, so they started the war by seceding from the union. The North refused to let the Southern states break up the Union, thus the dispute led to the Civil War. The end result of the Civil War did free the slaves, however, the blacks did not gain any ground of status or respect among the states in either the north or south. White men continued to treat the African American population as property rather than people. Following the Civil War, slavery may have been abolished however not much changed for blacks. Blacks fought hard for freedoms; men still could not own property, vote, or go anywhere in public the white men were allowed. They suffered through hate, beatings, and small rations of food. They were treated no differently when they were supposed to be free. If a black man or woman did get the opportunity to work for pay at a white mans factory, he nor she would never get the same pay as a white man. They were working for the same company and doing the same job however, it wasnt considered to be right for a black man or woman to be earning the same amount as a white man or woman. Women were making small strides toward equality in the early 1800s; Oberlin College in 1833 was the first to accept women students and make their university a coed facility, the first National Female Anti-Slavery Society convention was held in 1837 with 81 female delegates, and in 1844 Female textile workers in Massachusetts organized the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association (LFLRA) and demand a 10 hour work day. The push for womens right to vote began in the mid 1800s when the proposed 15th amendment came to fruition. Some suffragists refused to endorse the amendment because women were not included; however, argued that once the black man was enfranchised, women too would achieve their goal, and gain voting rights. The National American Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was formed in 1890; the group organized marches and protests, and pressed the federal government for institutional changes, such as allowing married women to have property rights. The 15th amendment to the Constitution granted African American men the right to vote. This was a big step in the direction of equality. This amendment states that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Voting rights for African Americans was huge in the civil rights movement; however it proved not to be an easy task or necessarily wise choice for most blacks to do so. Discriminatory legal barriers were enacted to prevent them from actually having a say, once again forcing the African Americans to fight for what was suppose to be a freedom. Literary tests, poll taxes, the grandfather clause and white primaries were put in place as ways to discourage the black voters from excerising their civic duty. Literary tests were exams given to indivudials to determine if they were intelligent enough to vote. The vast majority of African Americans were not educated; therefore it was very difficult to prove they were literate enough to vote. The exams were administered by whites and bias toward whites. A test administer may ask a white person to spell a simple word such as God or boy, where a black person would be asked to spell a word like chrysanthemum or interpretation. When an African American got the word wrong, they were deemed illiterate and lost their privilege to vote. For those who did pass the literary tests, the government put in place poll taxes. Essentially this was a law forcing voters to pay a steep tax/fee in order to vote. If you were not able to pay the tax, your right to vote was revoked. Taxes were also cumulative; if you could not afford the tax at a particular election, the next time you tried to vote, you were required to pay that elections tax as well as all previou s unpaid taxes. African Americans were poor and most lost their voting privilege because of this. The Grandfather Clause was a law that waived electoral literacy requirements and poll taxes for those whose ancestors voted before the Civil War. This provided a loop hole for illiterate whites that could not pass the literary tests to be able to vote. It also prevented the blacks from voting as the majority of their ancestors were slaves and had no rights. The Democratic Party was the dominant party in the United States during this time and in most all elections their candidates were in office. To avoid allowing black voters to vote in the primarys, the democrats promoted their political party as a private organization. By doing this, they could control who voted in the primary and they could exclude anyone they wished. In most cases, who ever won the primary, and made it to the general election ticket would be voted into office; therefore the African American votes really didnt matter since the primary was determined by the whites. The Reconstruction period following the Civil War saw the beginnings of the Ku Klux Klan. This group was a white activist group and the first charter was founded in 1865. Their original purpose was to deny African Americans the same rights and opportunities as white people in the south. Klan members used violence, threats, and even murder of those blacks who attempted to become educated, to vote, to befriend whites or sought out better paying jobs. It was during this time the Klan began to wear white robes in an attempt of further intimidating blacks and to conceal their identity. In 1870 and 1871 the federal government was forced to step in and passed a series of acts, known as Enforcement Acts. They were put in place to protect the voting rights of blacks and to try and suppress the Ku Klux Klan. The Acts; outlawed actions intended to prevent blacks from voting, established rules to eliminate fraudulent registration practices, prevented intimidation of blacks by any illegal action, and gave the president the right to have the military step in when public safety was threatened. Civil rights have been a struggle America has faced since the founding of our country, and has been a violent and deadly battle for equality of our laws. All people are created equal, and all people bleed red. I believe that every citizen in America should have the same rights and privileges regardless of ethnic background or religion. A prerequisite of being a white, land owning well off male contradicts the very principals our nations was founded on. Reconstruction in the south was Americas first attempt at an interracial democracy. It completely reshaped life as was once known. Blacks were freed from slavery and for the first time looked upon as a person, not property. The United States government finally assumed responsibility for defining and protecting civil rights. Freedmen in the south were given an opportunity to vote; although it did not come with out risk and challenges. Black men were also granted the right to hold political office. The African American community was huge in the south, and with the help of white allies was able to temporally bring the Republican Party to power. Cumming, GA is considered to be a rural country town with little racial diversity or tolerance. Cumming benefited from the traffic of the gold rush in Dahlonega; however when gold was discovered in CA, and the tourists left, Cummings economy suffered. Even during the Civil War, Cumming was bypassed by Shermans Army and was basically a sleepy little town. There is a case from1912 when a white woman was raped by 3 black men in town. This outraged the citizens so much that Georgias governor was forced to send troops into the city to prevent a riot. The Ku Klux Klans Knight Riders campaigned for well over a month in an effort to force all African Americans out of not only Cumming, but all of Forsyth County. They were fairly successful and for many years the black population in the county was basically non existent. More recently in 1987, a small group of blacks marched through town in Cumming to celebrate Martin Luther Kings birthday. This infuriated the Klan and in protest, they threw g lass bottles and rocks at the group. This attack drew national attention and turned into the largest civil rights demonstrations since the 1960s. The results of this demonstration were positive as it was a turning point and marked favorable change. Today, the city is becoming more and more diverse and is growing rapidly.

Raymond Williams And Post Colonial Studies Cultural Studies Essay

Raymond Williams And Post Colonial Studies Cultural Studies Essay Twentieth century literary critic Raymond Williams was one of the most reputable, yet contested scholars from the British New Left. Once dubbed our best man in the New Left by his contemporaries, Williamss reputation in a post colonial context is less secure.  [1]  Patrick Brantlinger said it best: Williams was thoroughly the representative man. He was the voice of the ordinary, the voice of the working-class, the voice of Wales, the voice of British socialism, the conscience of Britain and of Europe. He understood that his life mattered because it was ordinary, and representative.  [2]  However, the early 1980s signified the shift in political and economic relations between western and non-western countries through post-colonialism, including former British colonies.  [3]  Moreover, post-colonialism served as an avenue to recover alternative ways of knowing and understanding or simply those other voices as alternatives to dominant western constructs.  [4]  While Raym ond Williams provides British colonial commentary, primarily in his seminal work, The Country and the City, it was in the periphery of his grander cultural theory. Scholars within the Birmingham School and post colonial studies have debated the implications of this, including Williams himself. Consequently, this essay will outline the scholarly debate regarding Raymond Williamss alleged ambivalence towards British colonialism and race within his conception of culture. This will allow for an examination of Williamss work within the context of postcolonial studies, particularly the legacy of his cultural theory in a modern context. Raymond Williamss analysis in The Country and City certainly coincides with postcolonial theories emphasis on geography, whether in conversations around spaces, centers, peripheries or borders.  [5]  This analysis is especially significant because as argued by Anthony Alessandrini, postcolonial theory has benefited from the Marxist and Marxist-influenced analyses undertaken by figures involved in the post-Second World war movements against imperialism and for national liberation.  [6]  Alessandrini attributed the 1970s and 1980s political work and cultural analysis of writers like Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall and Paul Gilroy for influencing major figures in postcolonial studies such as Franz Fanon and Edwards Said.  [7]  Therefore, as Alessandrini continued, We would need to look more closely at the historical circumstances under which the field of postcolonial studies has arisen, and especially at the sorts of strategic decisions involved in the adoption or rejection of particular theoretical paradigms.  [8]  Paul Giles would certainly agree as he adds, It would be disingenuous to ignore the fact that postcolonial scholarship in its contemporary guise has as one of its enabling conditions of possibilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the increasing attention paid to issues of subalternity and hegemony by forms of cultural Marxism such as those of Antonio Gramsci and Raymond Williams.  [9]  Consequently, this paper is framed around this very approach in regards to the work of Raymond Williams. While few would question the merit or significance of Raymond Williams and his nuanced study of the nineteenth century British rural working class in both Culture and Society and the Long Revolution, there has been significant criticism of Williams due in part to his silence regarding British colonialism. This has proved to be disturbing for some, and certainly problematic for a number of Williamss contemporaries and successors even within the British New Left. Gauri Viswanathan provides an exceptional layout of the criticisms against Raymond Williams and the British New Left in general to conceptualize culture and imperialism. He outlines that within British cultural Marxist tradition since Williams, the conception of British nationalism has been used interchangeably with issues of race, colonialism, or imperialism.  [10]  This is quite evident in Raymond Williamss Keywords (1976), in which the definition of race is not a separate entry of its own, but is distinctively tied to i deas of nationalism. Williams writes: Nationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦originally with a primary sense of a racial group rather than a politically organized grouping. Since there is obvious overlap between these senses, it is not easy to date the emergence of the predominant modern sense of a political formation. The persistent overlap between racial grouping and political formation has been important, since claims to be a nation, and to have national rights, often envisaged the formation of a nation in the political sense, even against the will of an existing political nation which included and claimed the loyalty of this [racial] grouping. It could be and is still often said, by opponents of nationalism, that the basis of the groups claim is racial. (Race, of uncertain origin, had been used in the sense of a common stock from C16 [sixteenth century]. Racial is a C19 [nineteenth-century] formation. In most C19 uses racial was positive and favourable, but discriminating and arbitrary theories of race were becoming more explicit in t he same period, generalizing national distinctions in supposedly radical scientific differences. In practice, given the extent of conquest and domination, nationalist movements have been as often based on an existing but subordinate political grouping as upon a group distinguished by a specific language or by a supposed racial community.  [11]   Gauri Viswanathan attributes Raymond Williamss understanding of British nationalism as less of a theoretical oversight or blindness than an internal restraint with complex methodological and historical origins.  [12]  Citing Raymond Williamss conception of base and superstructure, Viswanathan dissects Williamss methodology and level of comfort with Marxist framework. While Viswanathan highlights the dynamic nature of Williamss work as seemingly accommodating a broadened analysis of culture to include colonial relations, he ultimately concedes that Williams continually resisted that kind of refinement of his work.  [13]  Moreover, Viswanathan continued that this base and superstructure framework restricted him [Williams] to solely economic determinist outcomes and pointed to the inefficacy of Williamss cultural materialism.  [14]  Hence Viswanathan concluded that Williamss model was inherently unable to accommodate British imperialism as a function of metropolitan culture due to the internal restraints of his troubled self-conscious with Marxian  [15]  frameworks. Forest Pyle presented a similar commentary in his essay, Raymond Williams and the Inhuman Limits of Culture. Pyle argues that since language is a human instrument it is consequently inhuman for Williams to consider culture as the mapping of a particular historical configuration and of social, economic, and political life.  [16]  Moreover, Williamss cultural theory is beyond repair and cannot simply be corrected  [17]  due to the intertwined nature of culture and community within Williamss work. Therefore Pyle concludes that Raymond Williamss sense of culture cannot account for the historical and structural forms of colonialism and its aftermath. Pyle then goes a set further than Viswanathan in asserting that this points to not merely a personal limitation but a structural limitation that is explicitly exhibited by Williamss unapologetic understanding of empire.  [18]   Both Pyle and Viswanathan provide interesting critiques in light of Raymond Williamss 1973 essay, Base and Superstructure. Within this essay Williams stated that he had no use or static or highly determinedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ model(s) in which the rules of society are highlighted to the exclusion of the processional and historical.  [19]  Yet as both Pyle and Viswanathan conclude, Raymond Williamss analysis does not apply this cultural materialism model within an imperial or colonial context. Viswanathan indentified Raymond Williams as having an internal restraint due to his understanding of British culture and national identity.  [20]  Therefore Williamss conception of national culture remained hermetically sealed from the continually changing political imperatives of empire.  [21]  For example in The Country and the City, Raymond Williams classifies imperialism as the last mode of the city and countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦within the larger context of colonial expansion in which ev ery idea and every image was consciously and unconsciously affected.  [22]  Ultimately, however, British influence extended outward rather than that the periphery had a functional role in determining internal developments.  [23]  Consequently, Williams could only conclude that Britain achieved dominance through the power of a fully formed cultural and institutional system which was transplanted and internalized within British colonies.  [24]   Unsurprisingly, Raymond Williamss cohorts within the Birmingham have attributed this kind of colonial analysis to racism or an egregious form of Eurocentrism on Williamss part. This is especially the case for those involved in black cultural studies, namely Stuart Hall and Paul Gilroy. Stuart Hall openly critiqued the limitations of the Birmingham cultural theory in dealing with the other during his tenure as program director in the late 1960s. Hall found that the issues race and cultural relations as advocated by his predecessors were particularly oppressive to minority groups, therefore highlighting a departure of the School itself from Raymond Williams.  [25]  In Cultural Studies and Its Theoretical Legacies, Hall discusses the question of race in cultural studies as a major break in the Birmingham School. He emphasizes: Actually getting cultural studies to put on its own agenda the critical questions of race, the politics of race, the resistance to racism, the critical questions of cultural politics, was itself a profound theoreticalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.and sometimes bitterly contested internal struggle against a resounding but unconscious silence. A struggle which continued in what has since come to be known only in the rewritten historyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.of the Centre for Cultural Studies.  [26]   Paul Gilroy, who studied with Stuart Hall at the Birmingham School in England, focused on postcolonial modes of deracination within transatlantic culture.  [27]  As Paul Giles states, Paul Gilroy took issue with what he perceived as traditional racism and ethnocentrism of English cultural studies,  [28]  citing in particular the tendencies of E. P. Thompson and Raymond Williams to systematically omit blacks from their analysis on British cultural identity.  [29]  Therefore, Gilroy viewed America as a counterpoint to British cultural analysis, and a means of disturbing any narrowly ethnic definition of racial authenticity or the purity of cultures on either side of the Atlantic.  [30]  Gilroy juxtaposed black culture in Britain with American black protest movements, in order to discredit conceptions of race, people or nation as advocated by Raymond Williams. In fact, Gilroy presents one of the most extreme critiques of Raymond Williams, charging him with proposing a ne w racism in his analysis of culture.  [31]   New Left scholar Benita Perry highlights that the new racism advocated by Raymond Williams was especially problematic for Paul Gilroy, who argued that New Left efforts in the 1960s to reclaim patriotism and nationalism resulted in ethnic absolutism.  [32]  She continues that the concept of culture itself became a site of struggles over the meaning of race, nation, and ethnicity for scholars interested in minority studies such as Gilroy.  [33]  The main issue for Gilroy was that Raymond Williamss conception of culture, with its emphasis on long experience, deflected the nation away from race, setting the course for British Cultural Marxists in general to write irresponsibly and quite ambivalently about race.  [34]  Additionally, this excluded blacks from the significant entities due to Williamss silence on racism, which for Gilroy has its own historical relationship with ideologies of Britishness and national identity.  [35]  This is very similar to the argument presen ted by Gauri Viswanathan earlier on the influence of Raymond Williams on British imperial and national scholarship.  [36]   Beyond overt notions Eurocentrism, Williamss critics vehemently opposed his understanding of the long [British] experience deriving from rooted settlement, which excluded colonized groups and immigrants from the significant entity.  [37]  Paul Gilroy notes that the most egregious silence in Williamss work is his refusal to examine the concept of racism which has its own historic relationship with ideologies of Englishness, Britishness and national belonging.  [38]  He adds, There can be little doubt that blacks are familiar with the legacy of British bloody mindedness in which he takes great pride. From where they stand it is easier to see that its present day cornerstones are racism and nationalism, its foundations slavery and imperialism.  [39]  Therefore, Gilroy concludes that cultures are not isolated from each other as Raymond Williams seemly implied in The Country and the City, but are linked to the persistent crisscrossing of national boundaries.  [40]   Additionally, Paul Gilroy discussed the implications of Raymond Williamss work for peoples of color residing in or immigrating to England. In direct response to Williamss position on lived experience and rooted settlement, Gilroy pointedly asked: How long is long enough to become a genuine Brit in the context of lived and formed identities?  [41]  Gilroy argues, that Williamss favored the exclusion of immigrating peoples of color and contributed to a new racism grounded in a discourse of nation, focused on the enemy within and without race.  [42]  This new racism is rooted on cultural rather than biological determination, proving them undeserving of citizenship and creating authentic and inauthentic types of national belonging.  [43]  This was a position that his Birmingham School program director, Stuart Hall agreed with as well. Raymond Williamss requirements for British citizenship had major implications for those colonial subjects of the Commonwealth outside of Britain, such as Jamaican scholar Stuart Hall. These groups lacked the settled kind of identity and would certainly not qualify under this sort of citizenship as advocated by Raymond Williams as well.  [44]  Raymond Williamss commentary in Towards 2000 favored lived and formed identities, preferably those of a settled kind, for practical formation of social identity has to be lived.  [45]  Williams continues: Real social identities are formed by working and living together, with some real place and common interest to identify with.  [46]  Unsurprisingly, Stuart Hall retorts: I am the sugar at the bottom of the English cup of tea. I am the sweet tooth, the sugar plantations that rotted generations of English childrens teeth. There are thousands of others beside me that are, you know, the cup of tea itself. Because they dont grow it in Lan cashire, you know. Not a single tea plantation exists within the United Kingdom? What could Williams say to this-this outside history that is inside the history of the English?  [47]   Donald Nonini adds to this discussion in his analysis of Stuart Halls critique of Raymond Williams. He writes: The issue here for Stuart Hall, is the requirements of real and lived social identities, and the manner of exclusion of recent immigrants, who although residence of England, have only been there for a few generations. Clearly they do not share the long historical association with the land and forcible integration upon it as Williams required for real citizenship.  [48]  This had major implications on Stuart Halls work within the Birmingham School because he could not ignore the racialized aspects of Raymond Williamss cultural theory. In his essay, Culture, Community, and Nation, Hall equates Williamss cultural belongingness through actual, lived relationships of place, culture and community, amongst politically and culturally subordinate peoples as a replacement for biological determinism and coded language for race and color.  [49]  Therefore, Stuart Hall agrees wit h Paul Gilroy that there is overt ethnic absolutism within Raymond Williams work. Moreover, Hall concludes that post-colonial diasporas of the late-modern experience will never be unified culturally because they are products of cultures of hybridity.  [50]  Hall equates this hybridity to a diasporic consciousness, which meant that non- retain strong links with the traditions and places of their origins while adapting to their present circumstances, so that they can produce themselves anew and differently.  [51]   In defense of Raymond Williams, Andrew Milner argued that both Stuart Hall and Paul Gilroy misinterpreted Williamss position on race, citing Towards 2000 as an example.  [52]  Milner writes that Williams was not only vocal about race, but advocated the kind of grassroots social movements that would raise awareness for the heterogeneous strands of English society.  [53]  In fact, Williams describes anti-globalization social movements as resources of hope.  [54]  Additionally, Milner relates Williams analysis of social movements to his understanding of class. He adds that for Williams, neo- imperialist issues led into the central systems of the industrial-capitalist mode of production and its system of classes.  [55]  He supports his position quoting Williams discussion of rooted settlements in Towards 2000: Rooted settlements were alienated superficialities of legal definitions of citizenship with the more substantial reality of deeply grounded and active social iden tities.'  [56]  This interpretation, according to Milner, was problematic for future Birmingham School scholars, particularly Paul Gilroy, who concluded that Williamss authentic and inauthentic types of national belonging followed the same racist rhetoric of British conservatives.  [57]  Milner, however, maintains that this was a distortion of Williamss original argument. He ultimately concludes that future scholars should reexamine Williamss position on race.  [58]   Similar to Milner, Donald Nonini and Christopher Prendergast presents Towards 2000 as the best evidence of Williams conception of racism and visible others in a post colonial context. Nonini cites Williamss observation that the most recent immigrations of more visibly different peoplesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦have misrepresented and obscured pasts.  [59]  Nonini continues that Raymond Williams did account for the differences within British culture and the contested nature of citizenship. For example, Williams wrote that when newly arriving immigrants interacted with true Englishmanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦angry confusions and prejudices were evident because of the repression of rural culture and people within Great Britain.  [60]  Nonini interprets this as a sign of Williams internalized colonist sentiment.  [61]  Therefore, Raymond Williams understood racism as the result of the hostility between the formerly integrated peoples and the immigrating more visibly different peoples due to colon ial ideology.  [62]  Moreover, Andrew Milner continues that Raymond Williams did not exclude blacks from a significant social identity with their white neighbors, as Paul Gilroy suggests highlighting Williamss analysis of rural mining communities in Towards 2000.  [63]  Additionally, Stuart Halls assertion that Raymond Williams not only questioned, but ruled out the possibility that relationships between blacks and whites in many inner-city communities can be actual and sustained is even more unfounded when analyzing Williamss work in Towards 2000.  [64]   Christopher Prendergast clarifies that Raymond Williams did not consider this as actual racism, but a profound misunderstanding due to purely social and cultural tensions between the English working class and who they perceived as outsiders.  [65]  While Williams seems to side with the ordinary, working-class man, Prendergast does specify that Williams did counter nativist claims in his conclusion that foreigners and blacks were just as British as we are.  [66]  Therefore, Prendergast maintains that Williams understood the limitations of a merely legal definition of what it is to be British. He adds that Williams felt that attempts to resolve issues around social identities were often colluded with the alienated superficialities of the nation which were often limited to the functional terms of the modern ruling class.  [67]  Ultimately, both Prendergast and Milner conclude that Raymond Williams was not oblivious to racial relations, citing Williams again: It is by working and living together as free as may be from external ideological definitions, whether divisive or universalist, that real social identities are formed.  [68]   While Milner and Prendergast offer an apologetic interpretation of Raymond Williams and colonial relations, Paul Giles and Forest Pyle emphasize Williams conception of culture as the liability in his analysis. In his essay, Virtual Americas: The Internationalization of American Studies and the Ideology of Exchange, Paul Giles cites Raymond Williamss idealized conception of community as an empowering and socially cohesive forceas problematic.  [69]  Williamss stubborn insistence in holistic communities and rooted settlements creates significant challenges when dealing with imperial relationships. Seemingly, Raymond Williamss cultural analysis accommodates a broadened conceptualization of culture that is inclusive of colonizer-colonized relations, yet this never materializes. Instead, Williamss understanding of the cultural experience becomes overtly exclusive of colonial others, minorities, and immigrants due to his naturalized and geographically localized notion of English nation al culture.  [70]  As outlined previously with Forest Pyle, Williamss appropriation of culture as inhuman and fictional due to the pervasive and elusive nature of the term itself in relation to colonial analysis.  [71]   Post colonial scholar R. Radhakrishnan provides a critique of Raymond Williamss cultural theory as a means of deconstructing Eurocentrism in a post colonial context. While Radhakrishnan acknowledges the insight provided in The Country and the City, he argues that Williamss continual self-reflexivity posits him in a contradictory position when it relates to colonialism and culture. Therefore his commentary becomes both oppositional-marginal and dominant-central and ultimately coincides with a demonstrably metropolitan voice.  [72]  As a result, those within the margins or periphery of dominant British culture are too easily and prematurely adjusted and accommodated within what Williams considered as a connecting process towards a common history.'  [73]  Radhakrishnan maintains that what differentiates post colonial scholars such as Edward Said or Paratha Chatterjee from Raymond Williams is their awareness and articulation of subaltern marginality that often negates Williamss n otion of a successfully transplanted method of cultural commonality.  [74]  In that sense British nationalism or culture can be enacted in the postcolonial context to the detriment of indigenous, peripheral cultures because it fails to speak for them. Therefore, Radhakrishnan concludes that Williamss cultural analysis is incapable of dealing with the nuances of either a colonial or post colonial world. Nevertheless, numerous scholars have worked to

Graduation Speech: No Day But Today -- Graduation Speech, Commencement

Mrs. Meke told me never to start a paper with a dictionary definition, but it only seemed fitting to site Merriam Webster today. Graduation is the act of acceptance of an academic degree or diploma. Never have Merriam and Webster been more off their mark. Graduation is much more than a simple ceremony, it is the culmination of 12 years of work, friendships, and the little moments that still make us smile. High school was more than its name leads you to believe. It wasn’t just school, it taught us a whole lot more than how to write a good essay, who laid the foundation for communism, and why we all should despise geometry proofs. High School taught us about love, life, work ethic, and how to be a person of substance, all of which might be more important than knowing what started World War I. Before we can move on, we must reflect. These have been four long years. We will cherish the good moments we have had here, games, dances, spirit days, lunches, musicals, field trips, and other countless extra curricular activities. When we look back with our rosy retrospective, these are the moments we will remember, besides in 20 years who really is going to remember how much stress their freshman bio exam caused them. We all came in this school together. We were a mixture of nervous, excited, and scared because this was an entire new world for us. Sure we may have been scared by the size of the building or we might have gotten lost on our first day, by the end of our four years, we had it all figured out. Its just our luck, the year we figure out the quickest way to each class, which hall has the coldest drinking fountain, and what is actually edible in the cafeteria, it is the year we have to leave and start this all over ag... ...lieve it or not, they really do care. They might show it by simply asking how your day was, coming in early or staying late to help you, holding a thousand reviews before the A.P. test, or letting you turn in your paper a few days late because you have had a lot on your plate and needed a little slack. There are many of you teachers here to whom we owe unending thanks and gratitude. It would simply take to long to list all of you individually and why we are thankful, but I wanted to let you know; you make me and so many others proud to be your students. Not only have you taught us millions of facts, events, and formulas, you have taught us about ourselves. There is an old Chinese Proverb that says, â€Å"Teachers open the door, but you must enter by yourself.† Well, you can let go of my hand today; I am ready to enter that door. It doesn’t get much simpler than that.

Optimization of Ritalin for more Effective Results Essay -- Methylphen

Ritalin (Methylphenidate) Optimization Ritalin Pills Abstract: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is currently the dominating psychiatric disorder found in children. The creation of the drug Ritalin based on the molecule Methylphenidate in the early 90’s sparked a widespread use of this psycho stimulant, which still remains as one of the most popular drugs used to counteract the symptoms of ADHD. My ultimate goal in this research project is to design analogs for the drug Ritalin in the hopes of discovering a more effective version of this medication. Through research, it can be concluded that none the analogs suggested are suitable candidates for new drugs based on the results. Introduction: With 3-5 percent of school children today diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), ADHD has been reported to account for 50 percent of the child psychiatric population seen at the clinic. Methylphenidate (figure 1) serves as the dominant drug used in medications counteracting the symptoms of ADHD. (1) Among those medications, Ritalin is currently prescribed for daily use to 1.5 million school children in the United States, making it one of the most widely used prescription medications today. (2) The optimization of Ritalin is of utmost importance and will therefore, be the topic of this project. Scientists believe that ADHD is caused by an imbalance between dopaminergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic neurotransmitter systems. However, this theory remains questionable due to an insufficient amount of evidence. Methylphenidate’s mechanism of action, Fig. 1: Methylphenidate Molecular Structure which is based on dopamine synaptic uptake inhibition, essentially allows it to binds to ... ... Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (1997) 29 July 2008 2) Ritalin: Fast Facts. Do It Now Foundation. 29 July 2008. figure 1: United States Environmental Protection Agency. July 28 2008. figure 2: Medscape. July 28 2008. title picture: Wikimedia. July 28 2008. figure 4: Wikipedia. July 28 2008. figure 5: Wikipedia. July 28 2008. %28primary%29-skeletal.png> figure 8: Wikipedia. July 28 2008. svg> Optimization of Ritalin for more Effective Results Essay -- Methylphen Ritalin (Methylphenidate) Optimization Ritalin Pills Abstract: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is currently the dominating psychiatric disorder found in children. The creation of the drug Ritalin based on the molecule Methylphenidate in the early 90’s sparked a widespread use of this psycho stimulant, which still remains as one of the most popular drugs used to counteract the symptoms of ADHD. My ultimate goal in this research project is to design analogs for the drug Ritalin in the hopes of discovering a more effective version of this medication. Through research, it can be concluded that none the analogs suggested are suitable candidates for new drugs based on the results. Introduction: With 3-5 percent of school children today diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), ADHD has been reported to account for 50 percent of the child psychiatric population seen at the clinic. Methylphenidate (figure 1) serves as the dominant drug used in medications counteracting the symptoms of ADHD. (1) Among those medications, Ritalin is currently prescribed for daily use to 1.5 million school children in the United States, making it one of the most widely used prescription medications today. (2) The optimization of Ritalin is of utmost importance and will therefore, be the topic of this project. Scientists believe that ADHD is caused by an imbalance between dopaminergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic neurotransmitter systems. However, this theory remains questionable due to an insufficient amount of evidence. Methylphenidate’s mechanism of action, Fig. 1: Methylphenidate Molecular Structure which is based on dopamine synaptic uptake inhibition, essentially allows it to binds to ... ... Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (1997) 29 July 2008 2) Ritalin: Fast Facts. Do It Now Foundation. 29 July 2008. figure 1: United States Environmental Protection Agency. July 28 2008. figure 2: Medscape. July 28 2008. title picture: Wikimedia. July 28 2008. figure 4: Wikipedia. July 28 2008. figure 5: Wikipedia. July 28 2008. %28primary%29-skeletal.png> figure 8: Wikipedia. July 28 2008. svg>

A Teenager Today Essay

Advantages you might have with being a teenager is that you get your freedom. When you turn sixteen you get your drivers license which could always mean one thing, MORE FREEDOM! What I like about being a teen is the fact that you start high school and you may be the top dog according to elementary school and middle school kids. When becoming a freshman an already being in high school is that there are many clubs, groups, and sports that the regular and physically fit, student body can be apart of. When in high school you could do dance, cheerleading, baseball, ect., clubs, and maybe even JROTC which involves being physically fit to partake in this course. Also the four academic courses that you get a another chance at becoming a better student in knowledge as well as the fine arts credits that you can choose from in the registration form for high school that you get when becoming a freshman. The disadvantages of becoming a teen is the puberty stage of life. Hitting puberty means your body is changing to make you a better looking and acting teen. the other disadvantages that teens may come in contact with is the wrong group that may lead you into doing things that aren’t right. With being in the wrong group can lead to unwanted casualties that are easier to take on when you are a full adult. Being a teen sometimes leads to peer pressure when you are in a bad situation that can be avoided. Some disadvantages to becoming a teen may be driving without the right precautions in mind. Advice to other teens about becoming a teen are that you find the right group or clique to be with for your teenage years. You need to be careful with what you do because if you have parents that are over protective or just really care about your safety, make sure you don’t do anything that might get you into trouble. You need to make sure that if you are being pressured with anything just walk away or tell an adult about what is going on.Don’t go to parties and drink so much that you end up drinking and driving. If you are driving under the influence make sure that you call your parents to come get you even though you might be scared of the outcome. You also need to keep in mind that you may be pressured into trying things that are illegal, so make sure that you also say no to drugs. Things you should say no to drugs, drinking, drinking and driving, sex, pregnancy, and any other unwanted casualties that teens are not ready to handle, even though you think you might be able to , say no!’

Torispherical Head Tank Volume

Calculating Tank Volume Saving time, increasing accuracy By Dan Jones, Ph. D. , P. E. C alculating fluid volume in a horizontal or vertical cylindrical or elliptical tank can be complicated, depending on fluid height and the shape of the heads (ends) of a horizontal tank or the bottom of a vertical tank. Exact equations now are available for several commonly encountered tank shapes. These equations can be used to make rapid and accurate fluid-volume calculations. All equations are rigorous, but computational difficulties will arise in certain limiting configurations.All volume equations give fluid volumes in cubic units from tank dimensions in consistent linear units. All variables defining tank shapes required for tank volume calculations are defined in the â€Å"Variables and Definitions† sidebar. Graphically, Figs. 1 and 2 show horizontal tank variables and Figs. 3 and 4 show vertical tank variables. Exact fluid volumes in elliptical horizontal or vertical tanks can be foun d by first calculating the fluid volumes of appropriate cylindrical horizontal or vertical tanks using the equations described above, and then by adjusting those results using appropriate correction formulas.Horizontal Cylindrical Tanks Fluid volume as a function of fluid height can be calculated for a horizontal cylindrical tank with either conical, ellipsoidal, guppy, spherical, or torispherical heads where the fluid height, h, is measured from the tank bottom to the fluid surface, see Figs. 1 and 2. A guppy head is a conical head where the apex of the conical head is level with the top of the cylindrical section of the tank as shown in Fig. 1. A torispherical head is an ASME-type head defined by a knuckle-radius parameter, k, and a dish-radius parameter, f, as shown in Fig. 2.An ellipsoidal head must be exactly half of an ellipsoid of revolution; only a hemiellipsoid is valid – no â€Å"segment† of an ellipsoid will work as is true in the case of a spherical head wh ere the head may be a spherical segment. For a spherical head, |a| ? R, where R is the radius of the cylindrical tank body. Where concave conical, ellipsoidal, guppy, spherical, or torispherical heads are considered, then |a| ? L/2. Both heads of a horizontal cylindrical tank must be identical for the equations to work; i. e. , if one head is conical, the other must be conical with the same dimensions.However, the equations can be combined to deal with fluid volume calculations of horizontal tanks with heads of different shapes. For instance, if a horizontal cylindrical tank has a conical head on one end and an ellipsoidal head on the other end, calculate fluid volumes of two tanks, one with conical heads and the other with ellipsoidal heads, and average the results to get the desired fluid volume. The heads of a horizontal tank may be flat (a = 0), convex (a > 0), or concave (a < 0). The following variables must be within the ranges stated: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ à ¢â‚¬ ¢ †¢ |a| ? R for spherical heads |a| ? L/2 for concave ends 0 ? ? 2R for all tanks f > 0. 5 for torispherical heads 0 ? k ? 0. 5 for torispherical heads D>0 L? 0 Page 1 of 12 Variables and Definitions (See Figs. 1-5) a is the distance a horizontal tank's heads extend beyond (a ; 0) or into (a ; 0) its cylindrical section or the depth the bottom extends below the cylindrical section of a vertical tank. For a horizontal tank with flat heads or a vertical tank with a flat bottom a = 0. Af is the cross-sectional area of the fluid in a horizontal tank's cylindrical section. D is the diameter of the cylindrical section of a horizontal or vertical tank.DH, DW are the height and width, respectively, of the ellipse defining the cross section of the body of a horizontal elliptical tank. DA, DB are the major and minor axes, respectively, of the ellipse defining the cross section of the body of a vertical elliptical tank. f is the dish-radius parameter for tanks with torispherical hea ds or bottoms; fD is the dish radius. h is the height of fluid in a tank measured from the lowest part of the tank to the fluid surface. k is the knuckle-radius parameter for tanks with torispherical heads or bottoms; kD is the knuckle radius.L is the length of the cylindrical section of a horizontal tank. R is the radius of the cylindrical section of a horizontal or vertical tank. r is the radius of a spherical head for a horizontal tank or a spherical bottom of a vertical tank. Vf is the fluid volume, of fluid depth h, in a horizontal or vertical cylindrical tank. Page 2 of 12 Horizontal Tank Equations Here are the specific equations for fluid volumes in horizontal cylindrical tanks with conical, ellipsoidal, guppy, spherical, and torispherical heads (use radian angular measure for all trigonometric functions, and D/2 = R > 0 for all equations): Conical heads.Vf = A f L + K †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦ 0 ? h < R 2 aR2 ? ? / 2 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ h = R 3 ? ? K †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. R < h ? 2 R 1 ? 2 M 1 ? M2 M M= R? h R K ? cos ? 1 M + M 3 cosh ? 1 Ellipsoidal heads. Vf = A f L + ? a h 2 1 ? Guppy heads. h 3R Vf = A f L + 2aR2 2a h cos ? 1 1 ? + 2 Rh ? h 2 (2 h ? 3 R )(h + R ) 3 R 9R Spherical heads. 3R 2 + a 2 6 ? a 3R 2 + a 2 3 h ? a h2 1 ? 3R Vf = A f L + a a ?a ( ( ) ) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦.. h = R, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦. h = D, a ? R a ? R †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. .. h = 0 or a = 0, R, ? R 2 2r3 R2 ? r w R2 + r w z R cos ? 1 2+ + cos ? 1 ? 3 R (w ? r ) R(w + r ) r r ? 2 w r2 ? R cos ? 1 w R a ? 0. 01D y 4w y z w3 tan ? 1 + 3 z 3 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. . h ? R, D; a ? 0, R, ? R; a R2 ? x 2 2 r 2 ? x 2 tan ? 1 dx ? A f z a r 2 ? R2 w a2 + R2 2|a| ( ) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. . h ? R, D; a ? 0, R, ? R; a < 0. 01D r= a? 0 ; a =  ± r ? r 2 ? R2 + ( ? ) for convex (concave ) heads w ? R? h y ? 2 R h ? h2 z ? r 2 ? R2 Page 3 of 12 Torispherical heads.In the Vf equation, use +(-) for convex(concave) heads. Vf = A f L  ± 2 [ 2 v 1,max ? v 1 (h = D ? h) + v 2,max + v 3,max ] †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦. h 2 ? h ? D 2 ( v 1,max + v 2 + v 3 ) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 v1 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦. 0 ? h ? h1 h1 < h < h 2 2kDh? h2 v1 ? 0 kD cos ? n 2 sin ? 1 n 2 cos ? 1 n2 ? w 2 ? w n 2 ? w 2 dx n g w ? w n 2 ? w 2 + g n 2 ? g 2 dx ? cos ? 1 n n 2 v2 ? 0 g g2 + r w z r3 g2 ? r w 2+ cos ? 1 + cos ? 1 ? r g(w + r ) r 3 g (w ? ) v3 ? g cos ? 1 g2 ? w 2 w3 w tan ? 1 ? w r2 ? 3 z g †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦.. 0. 5 < f ? 10 + w z g2 ? w 2 6 g2 ? x 2 z + wz 2 2 g (h ? h1 ) ? (h ? h1 ) 2 (r 2 ? x 2 tan ? 1 ) dx ? w z 2 w 2 g cos ? 1 ? w 2g(h ? h1 ) ? (h ? h1 ) 2 g 0. 5 < f < 10,000 v 2,max ? v 2 (h = h 2 ) v 3,max ? v 3 (h = h 2 ) = v 1,max ? v 1 (h = h1 ) ? a1 6 ( 3g 2 2 + a1 ) a 1 ? r ( 1 ? cos ? ) r ? fD h 2 ? D ? h1 w ? R? h z ? r 2 ? g 2 = f D cos ? = r cos ? ? ? sin ? 1 1? 2k = cos ? 1 2 (f ? k ) 4 f 2 ? 8 f k + 4k ? 1 2 (f ? k ) h1 ? k D (1 ? sin ? ) n ? R ? k D + k 2D 2 ? 2 g ? f D sin ? = r sin ? In the above equations, Vf is the total volume of fluid in the tank in cubic units consistent with the linear units of tank dimension parameters, and Af is the cross-sectional area of flui d in the cylindrical body of the tank in square units consistent with the linear units used for R and h. The equation for Af is given by: A f = R 2 cos ? 1 R? h ? (R ? h) 2 R h ? h 2 R Page 4 of 12 Figure 1. Parameters for Horizontal Cylindrical Tanks with Conical, Ellipsoidal, Guppy, or Spherical Heads. Spherical head Cylindrical Tube Hemiellipsoid head r(sphere) DGuppy head Conical head a (cone; guppy) a(sphere) R h a(ellipsoid) L Af Fluid cross-sectional area CROSS SECTION OF CYLINDRICAL TUBE h 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Both heads of a tank must be identical. Above diagram is for definition of parameters only. Cylindrical tube of diameter D (D > 0), radius R (R > 0), and length L (L ? 0). For spherical head of radius r, r ? R and |a| ? R. For convex head other than spherical, 0 < a < ? , for concave head a < 0. L ? 0 for a ? 0, L ? 2|a| for a < 0. Ellipsoidal head must be exactly half of an ellipsoid of revolution. 0 ? h ? D.Page 5 of 12 Figure 2. Parameters for Horizontal Cylindrical Tanks with Torispherical Heads. kD h2 R D ? fD h h1 Horizontal Cylindrical Tank Examples L The following examples can be used to check application of the equations: Find the volumes of fluid, in gallons, in horizontal cylindrical tanks 108†³ in diameter with cylinder lengths of 156†³, with conical, ellipsoidal, guppy, spherical, and â€Å"standard† ASME torispherical (f = 1, k = 0. 06) heads, each head extending beyond the ends of the cylinder 42†³ (except torispherical), for fluid depths in the tanks of 36†³ (example 1) and 84†³ (example 2).Calculate five times for each fluid depth – for a conical, ellipsoidal, guppy, spherical, and torispherical head. For example 1 the parameters are D = 108†³, L = 156†³, a = 42†³, h = 36†³, f = 1, and k = 0. 06. The fluid volumes are 2,041. 19 Gal for conical heads, 2,380. 96 Gal for ellipsoidal heads, 1,931. 72 Gal for guppy heads, 2,303. 96 Gal for spherical heads, and 2,028. 63 Gal fo r torispherical heads. For example 2 the parameters are D = 108†³, L = 156†³, a = 42†³, h = 84†³, f = 1, and k = 0. 06. The fluid volumes are 6,180. 54 Gal for conical heads, 7,103. 45 Gal for ellipsoidal heads, 5,954. 1 Gal for guppy heads, 6,935. 16 Gal for spherical heads, and 5,939. 90 Gal for torispherical heads. For torispherical heads, ‘a’ is not required input; it can be calculated from f, k, and D. torispherical-head examples, the calculated value is ‘a’ = 18. 288†³. Page 6 of 12 For these Vertical Cylindrical Tanks Fluid volume in a vertical cylindrical tank with either a conical, ellipsoidal, spherical, or torispherical bottom can be calculated, where the fluid height, h, is measured from the center of the bottom of the tank to the surface of the fluid in the tank.See Figs. 3 and 4 for tank configurations and dimension parameters, which are also defined in the â€Å"Variables and Definitions† sidebar. A torispheric al bottom is an ASME-type bottom defined by a knuckle-radius factor and a dish-radius factor as shown graphically in Fig. 4. The knuckle radius will then be kD and the dish radius will be fD. An ellipsoidal bottom must be exactly half of an ellipsoid of revolution. For a spherical bottom, |a| ? R, where a is the depth of the spherical bottom and R is the radius of the cylindrical section of the tank.The following parameter ranges must be observed: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ a ? 0 for all vertical tanks, a ? R for a spherical bottom f > 0. 5 for a torispherical bottom 0 ? k ? 0. 5 for a torispherical bottom D>0 Vertical Tank Equations Here are the specific equations for fluid volumes in vertical cylindrical tanks with conical, ellipsoidal, spherical, and torispherical bottoms (use radian angular measure for all trigonometric functions, and D > 0 for all equations): Conical bottom. ? Dh Vf = 4 4 a 2 h 3 2a 3 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. . à ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. h